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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 383, 1943

BOARD OF EDITORS

G. ARTHUR COOPER JASON R. SwWALLEN LE. V. Jupson
U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

W. Epwarpbs DEMING C. F. W. MuESEBECK
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Haraup A. REHDER Epwin KirKk
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT WiuuiaAM N. FENTON
BOTANICAL SOCIETY : ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

JaMEs I. HoFFMAN
CHEMICAL SOCIBTY

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ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 33

No. 1, pp. 1-382, January 21, 1943.

No. 2, pp. 33-64, February 18, 1948.
No. 3, pp. 65-96, March 12, 1943.

No. 4, pp. 97-120, April 22, 1943.

No. 5, pp. 121-160, May 17, 1943.

No. 6, pp. 161-192, June 15, 1948.

No. 7, pp. 193-224, July 8, 1943.

No. 8, pp. 225-256, August 12, 1943.

No. 9, pp. 257-288, Sepicmnber 8, 1943.
No. 10, pp. 289- 320, October 1, 1943.
Nowlt, pp. 321-352, November 13, 1943.
No. 12, pp. 353-388, December 15, 19438.

OURNAL

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ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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ee ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY
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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 33

BOTAN Y.—Ceroxylon ferrugineum André, the Salento waxpalm.!

BomMuHarp, U.S. Forest Service.

The waxpalms (Ceroxylon)? grow in the
Andean region of northwestern South
America from Caracas in Venezuela to
southern Peru, or possibly into Bolivia. In
some areas waxpalms occur in such num-
bers that they dominate the landscape,
forming forests of ivory columns, known as
‘“nalmares.’”? These palms are extremely
beautiful—the graceful pinnate leaves
crown a usually tall, slender trunk, which is
covered with wax. The resinous wax can
be scraped from the trunk and fashioned
into candles and matches. The leaves are
used for thatch and the trunks for con-
struction. The outer wood is very hard.

The genus is justly celebrated. Certain
of the species are unique among living
palms—they are the tallest, grow at the
highest altitudes, and endure the coldest
temperatures of any palms in the world.’
The most renowned waxpalms, which were
first made known by Alexander von Hum-
boldt, are those of the Quindio region in the
Central Cordillera of Colombia. C. quin-
diuense (Karst.) Wendl. (= Klopstockia
quindiuensis Karst.) is the very tall (60
meters, or about 200 feet) species that
grows on the eastern slope at elevations
from 2,000 to 3,000 meters (nearly 10,000
feet) and endures temperatures just above
freezing. The very different species on the
western slope has apparently been without
a botanical designation; a valid name for it,
published with a brief description in 1879,

1 Received October 9, 1942.

2 The genera Klopstockia Karsten and Beetho-
venta Engel are at present referred to Cerozylon

Humb. & Bonpl.

3 BOMHARD, Miriam L. The waxpalms. Smith-
sonian Inst. Ann. Rept. 1936: 303-324, 4 pls., 2
figs. 1937. Spanish translation: Las palmeras de
cera. Bol. Soc. Geograf. Colombia 6(4): 250-273,
3 pls. 1940.

JANUARY 15, 1943

No. 1

Miriam L.

has escaped the attention of botanists. It
is the purpose of this paper to bring to light
that the name C. ferruginewm André‘ ap-
plies unmistakably to this species and can
refer to no other palm.

Although Cerorylon was established in
1807,5 founded upon a single species, C.
andicola Humb. and Bonpl., the genus is
even now not well understood botanically.
It is stated that Humboldt found this palm
in the most elevated part of the Andes (the
Quindio region), which separates the valley
of the Magdalena River from that of the
Cauca; more specifically, ‘It is found be-
tween the snow-capped summits of To-
lima, San Juan, and Quindfo.. . between
1750 and 2825 meters.” This is a roughly
triangular area on the eastern slope of the
Quindio Pass and must be considered as
the type locality of C. andicola. The Ceroxy-
lon described in such glowing terms by
Humboldt himself in his Vues des Cordil-
léres® is probably not the one figured in
connection with the formal description of
the species by Bonpland in 1807. In fact,
Bonpland states on page 4 of Plantes
Equinoxiales that ‘‘Humboldt drew this
plant on the spot; but the size of the draw-
ing being smaller than that of the fascicles
which we are going to publish under the
name of Plantes equinoxiales, we have been
obliged to make a larger drawing from it:
it is this which I present here. It was made
by Monsieur Turpin, who combines the
eminent knowledge of a botanist with the
talent of a skillful artist.’”’ The species is

4AnpRE_ Epovarp. L’Amérique équinoziale
(Colombie-Equateur-Pérou). Le Tour du Monde
37(945): 101. Feb., 1879.

5 Humpoupt, A., and BoNnpLaNpD, A. Plantes
équinoxiales 1: 1-6, pls. la, 1b. Paris, 1807.

6 HumBotpT, A. Vues des Cordilléres, pp. 13-
19, pl. 5. Paris, 1810.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

characterized by a single spathe and violet-
colored fruits; the inner perianth (corolla)
consists of three separate petals. The habit
figure shows a bulge in the trunk.

No palm answering to the description and
illustration of the type species has ever
again been encountered. It is true that vast
regions where the genus abounds still re-
main to be explored. Although C. andicola
has not yet been rediscovered in Colombia,
the figure and description may one day
prove to belong to a waxpalm of Ecuador,
where species with a bulged trunk do exist.’
As early as 1856, Hermann Karsten, who
described a new waxpalm genus, Klop-
stockia,® stated that he had been unsuccess-
ful in locating Humboldt’s C. andicola on
the eastern side of the Quindio, nor had
he seen any waxpalms that agreed with the
description of the genus. In 1858,!° there-
fore, he published K. quindiuensis (trans-
ferred to Ceroxylon by Wendland) for the
waxpalms he found “‘in the Quindio at the
foot of Tolima, altitude from 2200 to 2280
meters.”’ All the palms he saw had tall
straight trunks (not ventricose), there were
several spathes as in other members of
Klopstockia, the fruits were coral-red, and
the corolla was partly united below.

Humboldt appears to have been some-
what in error concerning the altitudinal
limits for palms on the eastern slope. It is
known that he crossed the Quindio divide
and was then forced to camp for several
days because of rains, but there is no indi-
cation that he noted the different character
of the waxpalms surrounding him then on
the western slope.

In March, 1876, however, Edouard André,
traversing the Quindfo trail from east to

™C. ventricosum Burret is bulged and has
grouped leaf segments. C. utile (Karst.) Wendl.
was described by Karsten as having aggregate leaf
segments but he made no mention of a ventricose
trunk. It is of interest that Richard Spruce listed
a palm in Ecuador as being C. andicola (Notes of
a botanist on the Amazon and Andes... during the
years 1849-1864, vol. 2: 268. 1908).

8 KaRSTEN, HERMANN. Plantae Columbianae.
Linnaea 28: 251-255. 1856.

® KarsTtEN, HERMANN. Die Vegetationsorgane
der Palmen. Phys. Abh. Kongl. Akad. Wiss.
Berlin, 1847: 73-235, pls. 1, 2. 1849. Also Kar-
STEN, Linnaea, 1856: 251.

10 KARSTEN, HERMANN.
1—2, pl. 1. Berlin, 1858.

Florae Columbiae 1:

VOL. 33, NO. 1

west, that is, from Ibagué to Cartago, and
following the exact route that Humboldt
took in October, 1801, at once observed
that a different species occurred on the
western side. André headed a scientific expe-
dition (mission) to Colombia, Ecuador, and
Peru, having sailed from St. Nazaire on
November 7, 1875. He returned to Europe
at the end of September, 1876. His official
report" enumerates his extensive collections
of herbarium specimens, seeds, living plants,
insects, minerals, and other specimens of
scientific interest. His travel and explora-
tion account was published in a series of
articles, L’ Amérique équinoxiale, which ap-
peared intermittently in Le Tour du Monde,
from 1877 to 1880. This weekly journal is
well printed and excellently illustrated. It
was devoted to accounts of travel and ex-
ploration.

The name Ceroxylon ferrugineum was
first published by André, with a brief de-
scription (amounting to a contrast of this
palm with that on the eastern slope which
he continues to refer to C. andicola), in Le
Tour du Monde, vol. 37, no. 945, p. 101,
1879. It might be well to quote at some
length from page 101. André states:

On the faith of Humboldt and other voyagers,
I indicated in a study of Ceroxylon andicola*
that the altitude where they grow is between
1750 and 2825 meters. I am today correcting
these figures from my own observations. On the
eastern slope of the Quindio, I have not en-—
countered this tree before 2,000 meters altitude
and I have followed it up to 3,000 meters. The
most abundant ‘‘palmares’’ are situated in the
vicinity of Las Cruces between the elevations of
Toché and La Céja. In going towards Ibagué, one
encounters the palm until near Mediacion. The
zone where it abounds only extends 15 to 20
kilometers, as a bird flies, north and south from
the mesa of Herveo to the massif of the Quindio.
...I have vainly searched the oak forests
(Quercus Humboldti) which the celebrated Ger-
man traveler said accompanied the wax palm.

The oaks, which scarcely go beyond 1800 meters

and which I had already noted... belong to a
* See Illustration horticole, 1874, p. 9, with
figure.

11 ANDRE Epovarp, in Archives Missions Sci-
entifiques 5 (sér. 3): 49-83. 1879. On p. 55 André
reports that he sent specimens of the Quindio
waxpalms to Paris; also that many points con-
cerning Humboldt’s C. andicola remain obscure
and that he hopes he will be able to clarify them.

JAN. 15, 1943

temperate, not a cold, country. These reasons
make me believe that Humboldt has confused the
true Cerozylon andicola, that of Las Cruces, with
another species, smaller, as yet little known (C.
ferrugineum). It is characterized especially by
the rough surface of its berries, and it abounds in
the Andes, principally on the west of the Central
Cordilleras and almost into the Republic of
Ecuador.

After crossing the crest (3,485 meters),
André observed that the vegetation was at
first quite similar to the unimpressive high-
altitude flora of the opposite side. Continu-
ing his descent toward Salento and the
Cauca valley, he remarks, on page 106:
“But as soon as the barometer indicated
2800 meters altitude and large trees domi-
nated, then giant oaks appeared, this time
intermingled with the other species of wax
palm of which I spoke previously, Ceroxylon
ferrugineum.”’ He states further, on page
108, that the waxpalms disappeared along
his route on the western slope at 1,800
meters.

Baron von Thielmann, in Vier Wege
durch Amerika (1879), says on page 374
that he arrived at the lower limit of the
waxpalm at 1,750 meters, near the Rio
Quindio (western slope). His footnote to
this remark is worth quoting:

According to the statements of the latest plant
explorer in this region, Ed. André, these wax
palms at the western base of the Quindio were not
identical with those of the eastern slope, but be-
longed to the related species, Cerorylon ferru-
gineum. The wax palm of Humboldt in the narrow
sense, Ceroxylon andicola, inhabits according to

André only the eastern slope of the Cordillera
between 2,000 and 3,000 meters.

Interestingly enough, the name Ceroxylon
ferrugineum has appeared in botanical lit-
erature but not ascribed to André. This may
be due to the fact that André’s name was
published in a journal devoted to travel.
Indeed, this name has been variously listed
as being of horticultural origin,” or credited

122 KERCHOVE (DE DENTERGHEM), OSWALD. Les
palmiers. Paris, 1878. On p. 238 of the Index
Général, Ceroxylon ferugineum (sic) Hort., is
listed as an invalid name, being in boldface type
which he uses to indicate invalid species. The
origin of C. ferrugineum as a horticultural name,
and this appears to be the earliest printing of it,
can only be surmised. André was himself espe-
cially interested in ornamentals. He returned from
South America in 1876 and had sent large quanti-

BOMHARD: THE SALENTO WAXPALM 3

to Regel,*® to Wallis,“ or to Linden.” The
entry as a valid name given in Index Kew-
ensis 1s as follows: “ferrugineum, Regel,
Gartenfl. (1879) 163. t. 977.—N. Granat.”

In this brief article (June, 1879) Regel
makes known three palms that were col-
lected by G. Wallis somewhere in tropical
America. Regel states that the name Cero-
xylon ferrugineum seems to have been given
only provisionally by Wallis to this palm.
There is no description. Figure 3 of plate
977 consists of three elements: a habit
sketch of some feather-leaved palm (there
are no spathes, nor is it discernible whether
the pendant inflorescences are in fruit or in
flower), a fruit with burst pericarp, and a
seed showing the micropyle. The fruit and
seed may possibly belong to some Cerory-
lon; the habit sketch is unidentifiable. Dr.
Max Burret!* is eminently correct in con-
signing this name to “nomina delenda’’;
that is, insofar as Regel’s Gartenflora is con-
cerned. But this is not the first date of

ties of palm and other seeds, living plants, etc., to
J. Linden’s horticultural establishment in Ghent,
as mentioned on p. 70 in his official report (Ar-
chives Missions Scientifiques, 1879). There was
ample time for the name to be known among
horticulturists between André’s return and his
publication of it. If it did not originate with him—
and this seems unlikely—at least he is the first to
have given characters to the different palm on the
western slope of the Quindio.

Dr. Burret also cites the name as a horticultural
one. See footnote 16 as well as footnote 14 (Dahl-
gren’s Index of American palms).

13 REGEL, EDUARD. Gartenflora 28: 163-164, pl.
977, fig. 3. June, 1879.

14 REGEL, EDUARD. Op. cit. 389. In the index the
name appears as follows: ‘‘Ceroxylum (sic) fer-
rugineum Wallis 163.” See also DAHLGREN, B. E.,
Index of American palms. Bot. Ser. Field Mus.
Nat. Hist. 14: 86. 1936. The entry on this page
as an invalid name is ‘‘ferrugineum Hort. Wallis,
RegelGartentl-- nomen). 7’

15 LINDEN, J. Plantes introduits et mises pour la
premiere fois dans le commerce par lI’ établissement
J. Linden. Illus. Hort. 28 (sér. 4, no. 1): 15-16.
1881. It has previously been mentioned that
André sent some of his South American material
to J. Linden for introduction. The entry on p. 16
of Linden’s palm list reads, under Ceroxylon:
‘“ferrugineum, Lind., Colombie.”’

16 BuRRET, M. Die Gattung Ceroxylon Humb. et
Bonpl. Notizbl. Bot. Gart. u. Mus. Berlin-Dahlem
10 (98): 853. 1929. The name is listed under the
heading ‘‘Species nimis imperfecte notae vel
nomina delenda’”’ as follows: ‘“‘Ceroxylon fer-
rugineum Hort. in Regel Gartenflora XXVIII
(1879) 163, tab. 977, fig. 3.”’ He suggests that the
species be looked upon as a ‘“‘Species delenda.”’

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

publication of C. ferruginewm. Inasmuch as
vol. 37 (the first semester of 1879) of Le
Tour du Monde begins with no. 939, there
seems to be little question that no. 945 ap-
peared in the third week of February, 1879.
(The even earlier horticultural nomen in
Kerchove may be disregarded. See foot-
note 12.)

André collected herbarium specimens of
4,300 species, with one to ten duplicates for
each number.’ His herbarium collection
numbers reached 3,175 by the time he ar-
rived at Pasto (this includes his trip over
the Quindio). Two waxpalm specimens col-
lected by André (nos. 2426 and 2563) are
deposited in the herbarium of the New
York Botanical Garden. The labels bear the
designation, ‘‘Mission scientifique de Ed.
ANDRE, HERBARIUM AMERICAE AEQUINOCTI-
ALIs.”’ Specimen no. 2426 was collected on
March 9, 1876, between Las Cruces and
Quindio, that is, on the eastern slope. It
consists of portions of two glabrous spa-
dices, one with some male flowers. The date
of collection for specimen no. 2563 is March,
1876; the locality, ‘‘Quindio-Salento-Tam-
bores.”” Tambores does not appear on re-
cent maps of the area, but it is clearly indi-
cated on André’s map no. 5 (his route from
Quindfo to Cartago, thence south to Buga)
about two-thirds of the distance from Sa-
lento toward Cartago.!® This specimen con-
sists of the upper portion of a fruiting
spadix to which, unfortunately, no fruits
are attached. The axis and branches are
clothed with a rusty-brown scurf—the ob-
vious ferruginous character on which An-
dré based his very appropriate name, fer-
rugineum. Fig. 1, F, shows a small branch
of André’s specimen.

17 ANDRE Epovuarp, in Archives Missions Sci-
entifiques, 1879, p. 69.

18 ANDRE, Epouarp. Le Tour du Monde 37:
(945): 99. 1879.

19 Hxamination of this and later collections of
C. ferrugineum shows that this covering is rather
remarkable in character. Although the spadix ap-
pears at first glance to be clothed with rusty
tomentum, it is clear under a lens that there are
no trichomes. The scurf that clings to the surface
appears to have been developed from numerous
papillae or crater-like projections which occur on
the basic surface of the spadix axis. The scurf is
not easily rubbed off with the fingers. It ignites
quickly when touched off with a match and the

odor emanating from it in burning is similar to
that when the wax on the trunk is ignited.

VOL. 33, NO. 1

It is likely that fruits accompany other
specimens of André 2563. André mentions,
on page 100 of vol. 37 (Le Tour du Monde),
in connection with the felling of a tree
of ‘‘C. andicola” (east slope of the Quindfo),
that the thousands of berries, some leaves,
spathes, and trunk sections that he sent
to Europe had become the property of
the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris.
It is reasonable to suppose that adequate
material of C. ferrugineum was also col-
lected by him.

He specifically stated, however, that the
fruits were characterized by their rough-
ness, thus differing from those of the species
on the eastern slope. Specimens of this
smaller palm from the western slope of the
Quindio, collected by E. P. Killip, of the
Smithsonian Institution, and Dr. T. E.
Hazen, of Columbia University, in 1922,
have berries whose surface is roughened by
small pustules.2® There are two sheets in
the U. S. National Herbarium of Kullip
9049, collected July 25-31, 1922, near Sa-
lento in the Department of Caldas, between
1,700 and 1,900 meters altitude. One con-
sists of an upper section of a leaf; the other,
of a portion of fruiting spadix, with the
fruits in an attached pocket. A photograph
of the palm is also affixed to the sheet. A
single sheet of Killip 9049 in the New York
Botanical Garden consists of a similar leaf
portion, section of spadix, and pocket of
fruits. Two mounts comprise the U. 8S. Na-
tional Herbarium specimen of Hazen 10149,
collected August 25-28, 1922,.in the Quin-
dio valley, toward Rio Boquio, between
1,600 and 1,700 meters. Part of a leaf is
mounted on one sheet; a spadix section
with several fruits attached and a pocket of
fruits make up the other. The spadices of
these specimens, with rather stout zigzag
branches, are unmistakably ferruginous; the
surface of the spherical fruits, buff-colored
when dry is definitely pustulate or “peb-
bly.” These specimens were collected in the
same region as André no. 2563 and are un-
doubtedly C. ferrugineum.”

20 BOMHARD, Miriam L. Op. cit.: 315.

21 On the eastern slope of the Quindio, Killip &
Hazen 9525 was collected on August 2, 1922, be-
tween La Céja and Agua Bonita, at 2,500 to

3,100 meters altitude. This specimen consists of
only a portion of a leaf; a photograph is also

JAN. 15, 1943

The most recent, and at the same time
the most complete, collection of the Salento
waxpalm that I have seen was made by Dr.
David Fairchild, July 11, 1941, on the ex-
tensive ranch of Dr. J. F. Galloway, at
1,828 meters. The ranch, on which there
are hundreds of waxpalms, is situated on
the Quindfo River above Salento. Kullip
9049 was also collected on the Galloway
place. Dr. Fairchild not only collected
seeds for plant introduction but also
made a special effort to secure herbar-
ium material (Fairchild 1023). I have been
privileged to examine parts of a leaf, an
entire fruiting inflorescence with spathes,
fruits, seeds, and sections of the trunk. In a
letter to Dr. Walter T. Swingle, Dr. Fair-
child wrote from Bogotdé, July 14, 1941:
“They are magnificent palms in a setting
so beautiful that you want to stay there
forever ...I saw no palm that I thought
was quite 200 feet. One that had fallen Dr.
Galloway stepped off and it was only 43
paces long. It was a smallish example, I
think. Dr. Galloway promised to measure
one accurately and let me know. I shall be
surprised if any go over 200 feet and most of
them I wager will measure under that. This
fact does not detract from their amazing
beauty and the marvelous character of this
organism, which can stand up perfectly

affixed. It is probably, from the locality at least,
C. quindiuense. It is unfortunate that there are
no fruits. The segments of this part of the leaf
(probably taken from below the middle) are about
68 cm long and 4 cm wide. They are whitish-scaly
on the under surface; the rachis is also whitish-
scaly below and on the sides as well. The leaf is
apparently much more robust than in C. fer-
rugineum.

Mr. Killip collected Ceroxylon specimens on
March 27 and 28, 1939, along the new Quindio
highway, between Cajamarca and the summit of
the Divide (eastern slope), at 2,488 meters. The
highway more or less parallels the old Quindfo
trail, which has now fallen into disuse, but runs
7 to 10 miles south of it. His specimen no. 34540
consists of part of a spadix, which appears to be
glabrous but is actually faintly scurfy (puberulous
where the scurf seems to have rubbed off), and
fruits, which are deposited in the separate fruit
collection of the U. S. National Herbarium. They
were a reddish color when fresh but are gray
when dry; superficially, they are quite smooth.
It is almost surely C. quindiuense, or very closely
related to that species. The seeds are black as in
C. quindiuense. One of these fruits and a cross-
section of the seed are shown in Fig. 1, A and B,
for comparison with C. ferrugineum.

BOMHARD: THE SALENTO WAXPALM 5

straight in the winds of some considerable
violence—60 km per hour would be a maxi-
mum I think—that blow down the pass.”

A complete description of the Salento
waxpalm can not form a part of this paper.
Knowledge of the flowers is lacking, but ar-
rangements made with Dr. Galloway should
soon provide flowering material. Certain
measurements are also lacking. There is
need of an adequate description of the living
trees.22 A very general account of Fairchild
1023, which is not offered as a technical de-
scription, is given below.”

22 To be fully understood botanically, palms are
best studied by investigators who have frequent
and ready access to them in their native habitat.
Fortunately, Dr. Armando Dugand, director of
the Instituto de Ciencias Naturales of the Uni-
versidad Nacional de Colombia, with head-
quarters at Bogota, has become interested in
palms. Among several papers already published
toward a comprehensive survey of the Colombian
species, a preliminary list, Palmas de Colombia,
appeared in Caldasia 1: 10-84, 1940. For Cerozy-
lon, see pp. 37-39 of this article.

23 The following account is being given to serve
as a partial record of Fairchild 1023 (C. fer-
rugineum), since it seems worth while to set down
any data that may add to the knowledge of a
species. This specimen was collected close to the
type locality of André. The trunk is at least 40,
and not more than 60 meters tall. It measures
about 30 cm in diameter toward the base, tapering
gradually to 15 em or less near the summit. The
leafscars, which are waxy, do not completely en-
circle the trunk (see pl. 2, Smithsonian Inst. Ann.
Rept. 1937). Five turns bring the ninth scar di-
rectly above the first. The vascular elements
stand out on a section as stiff black bundles.

The reduplicate segments, with strong midrib,
of the large pinnate leaves are placed uniseriately,
without a pulvinus, at rather regular intervals on
either side of the rachis. The segments toward the
apex of the leaf, closely spaced, are nearly op-
posite, whereas those near the middle, at 2-2.5
ecm intervals, are subopposite or alternate. (The
lowest section of the ‘‘blade’’ of material I
have examined apparently comes from a smaller
leaf than the rest of the material. However, in it
the 5 or 6 lowest segments are shorter, narrower,
and grouped closely together at the base of the
“‘blade.’’) The longest segments of the sections I
have seen measure 75 cm; these are widest (about
3.5 cm) some distance above their point of inser-
tion, tapering toward the apex, which is cleft.
The relatively soft, lax segments are glabrous and
green above; whitish-scaly beneath. The slender
rachis is also glabrous (perhaps somewhat resin-
ous) above; the lower face is similar to the under
surface of the leaves in its whitish- or grayish-
scaly indument; the sides are glabrous. A portion
of the leaf, taken from the section where the seg-
ments are longest, shows the rachis, which is 2
cm wide at this point, to advantage. There is a
shallow groove on the upper face; the lower is
rounded-cenvex. A cross-section of the rachis is

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

It seems evident from his treatment of
Ceroxylon™* that the eminent palm spe-
cialist Dr. Max Burret is, unfortunately,
aware neither of André’s publication of C.
ferrugineum, inasmuch as he gives only the
Regel citation, nor of his herbarium speci-

rectangular or, better, vertebra-shaped, rather
than triangular as in so many pinnate palm leaves.
The sides of the rachis slant downwards at only a
slight angle from the upper to the lower face. The
margins of the upper and lower faces are some-
what extended in phlange-like fashion (probably
slightly emphasized in the dry material); the in-
sertion of the segments, therefore, appears to be
partially concealed in the shallowly U-shaped
sides of the rachis.

The paniculately branched fruiting spadix is
about 24 dm long including the peduncle, which
measures 15 dm. It is covered with ferruginous
scurf throughout. The axis of the spadix is about
2.5 cm across at its base. There are about 75 pri-
mary branches including the smallest ones at
the apex. These branches are comparatively stout;
strongly thickened where they arise from the
main axis. The longest, 20 cm above the base,
measures 60 cm. The secondary branches have the
zigzag, tendril-like appearance of other Ceroxylon
specimens I have seen, but the undulations seem
to be more angular. The short thick pedicels of the
fruits are set at the undulation angles. (The
flowers are, of course, solitary.) Fig. 1, F, showing
a branch of André 2563, should make this clear.

I hesitate to describe the spathes, which, al-
though still attached to the fruiting peduncle in
this specimen, are already somewhat lax and
spent owing to age, and furthermore, are so fragile
that they shatter rather easily. Moreover, the
character of the spathes can best be seen when
a palm is in flower. The measurements here given
are only approximate and provisional. Dr. Fair-
child specifically mentioned that there were three
spathes, covered with grayish pubescence. How-
ever, I find remnants of a fourth partial spathe or
bract, which opens from the main axis 30 cm be-
low the body of the spadix. Assuming that the
peduncle of this specimen, which, like the spathes,
is covered with rufous almost velvety scurf, was
severed fairly close to the trunk, then the first
spathe (15 dm long) comes from near the base;
the second (about 18 dm in length) arises about 5
cm above the first; and the third (about 19 dm
long) comes off 15 cm above the second, is 8 or 9
cm wide, and strongly folded near the tip.

According to Dr. Fairchild the fruits were
“deep orange color’? when fresh. They fade to a
buff yellow on drying. These are 16 mm in diam.
and 17 mm in height (Fig. 1, C). The position of
the three stigma remains may be noted to one
side of the base of the fruit, where the perianth
persists. The outer, rather thin-leathery exocarp
is roughened by pustules and is slightly speckled.
(Fruits that are not entirely dried out are sub-
lustrous because of the wax.) The fleshy mesocarp
is rather friable; mucilaginous when placed in
water. The papery, gray endocarp adheres lightly
to the seed. The seeds (there is one in each fruit)

average 12—12.5 mm in diameter and 13 mm or

slightly more in height. They are chestnut-brown

VOL. 33, NO. 1

mens. It may be assumed that he believes
C. andicola occupies the Quindio region
from Ibagué all the way to Cartago. Fur-
thermore, apparently owing to the fact that.
a Ceroxylon specimen collected by August
Fendler, in Venezuela but with no other
data,> came to his attention, Dr. Burret has
added the ferruginous character to the spa-
dices of C. andicola.?* He has published the

and have a roughish surface. The point of attach-
ment is knoblike and the micropyle is prominent
just to the side of the knob. The albumen is
equable and the embryo subbasilar (Fig. 1, D
and £).

24 BurRET, M. Notizblatt 10(98), 1929. See the
key, pp. 841-842; the discussion of C. andicola,
pp. 842-844, and C. quindiuense, pp. 845-846, in
which it is stated that C. quindiuwense has been
mainly mistaken for C. andicola.

2% Thus far I have examined two Ceroxylon
specimens bearing the label ‘‘PLANTAE VENE-
ZUELANAE. Prope coloniam Tovar legit A. Fend-
ler.’ That in the New York Botanical Garden
is dated 1854-55; the other, in the herbarium of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
is dated 1856—57. There are no additional data.
Three other specimens in the Gray Herbarium,
all dated 1854-55, are undoubtedly of the same
collection as that in New York. Although it is
true that the spadices of all are ferruginous and
the fruits rough, the latter are mainly twinned,
smaller than those of C. ferrugineum, and the
surface is much more uneven—verrucose with
crater-like projections. Moreover, the sides of
the rachis—and therefore the appearance of the
insertion of the leaf segments—is quite unlike
that of specimens of C. ferrugineum. From ail
accounts, it seems practically certain that Fendler
did not travel in Colombia. Dr. H. W. Rickett,
bibliographer of the New York Botanical Garden,
wrote me in a letter of April 26, 1941, that Fendler
took up residence in Colonia Tovar, a small
colony 35 miles west of Caracas, Venezuela, in
1853. Except for the winter of 1855-56 spent in
the United States, he seems to have been in the
general region of Colonia Tovar, collecting many
plant specimens, until 1858. No doubt, there are
Ceroxylon species with ferruginous spadices and
rough fruits which await investigation in parts of
South America other than the western slope of
the Quindfo.

26 BuRRET, M. Palmae neogeae. Notizbl. Bot.
Gart. u. Mus. Berlin-Dahlem 11(105): 319-820.
1932. In this later note concerning Ceroxylon
andicola, Dr. Burret refers to his treatment of the
genus in Notizblatt, 1929, and again mentions the
Fendler specimen. He states that in the light of
specimens Killip 9049, Hazen 10149, and Killip
& Hazen 9525, which were sent him for determina-
tion, he is puzzled, especially since no. 9525, col-
lected at the higher altitude, appears to be C.
quindiuense, whereas those of the lower altitude
seem to him to be C. andicola. He has determined
no. 9525 as C. quindiuense with a question and
adds that it is perhaps C. andicola. He determined
the other two as C. andicola.

Dr. Burret himself previously pointed out

Jan. 15, 1943

name C. furfuraceum with Latin description
for the Fendler specimen but has placed it
under his discussion of C. andicola. I can
find no indication in Bonpland’s description

(1929) that Triana 720, with its male flowers, is
doubtless Klopstockia quindiuensis. The Triana
material is thought to have been collected with
Karsten, who later described K. quindiuensis. I
have examined Triana 720 and 723, collected
between 1851-57. A section of leaf and a spadix
branch (no. 720 has two branches mounted)
make up these specimens. The male spadices are
apparently glabrous (actually somewhat puberu-
lous under a lens) and glaucous or waxy. The flow-
ers agree perfectly with Karsten’s fig. 4, plate 1,
Florae Columbiae; the spadix also shows tertiary
branching. Moreover, the male spadices of the
Triana specimens are strikingly similar to the
male spadix of André 2426, collected on the east-
ern slope, except that the latter, although glau-
cous, is not puberulous. Dr. Burret further states

BOMHARD: THE SALENTO WAXPALM 7

or figures that the spadices of this species
are other than glabrous, nor is there any
statement in the comparatively detailed
description of the fruits that the surface is
verrucose.

that it is impossible to imagine that male and

female plants of the same species would differ
in the very striking indument of the spadices. I
might add that Ceroxylon is described by Bon-
pland as polygamo-monoecious, whereas Karsten’s
Klopstockia is dioecious, polygamo-dioecious, or
monoecious.

It would be enlightening to know the character
of the specimen in the Humboldt herbarium in
Paris purported to be the type of C. andicola,
but without exact locality. Although a clear
photograph of it is in the U. S. National Her-
barium, Mr. Killip’s negative no. 365, the

branches of the spadix section are so dense that
I am unable to glean much concerning its char-
acter.

Fig. 1.—A, Glabrous fruit of Killip 34540, Ceroxylon quindiuense or near this species; collected on
the new Quindfo highway between Cajamarca and the summit of the Divide, at 2,438 meters. The

position of the three persistent stigmas to one side of the base of the fruit is indicated.
tudinal section of seed showing position of the embryo.
D, Outer view of a seed, showing the position of the micropyle in relation to the
E, Longitudinal section of seed D, with position of embryo
F, Branchlet of ferruginous spadix, André 2563. Drawn by Leta Hughey. (All X23

Killip 9049.
hilum. C. ferrugineum, Fairchild 1028.
indicated.
except F, which is natural size.)

B, Longi-
C, Pustulate fruit of C. ferrugineum,

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Dr. Burret does cite André in L’I]lustra-
tion Horticole, 1878, as to his observations
concerning Humboldt’s altitudinal data.
This excerpt from the Le Tour du Monde
articles, although quoted, is not quite iden-
tical with the statements that appeared in
that journal in February, 1879, inasmuch
as André withholds the name of the species
on the western slope of the Quindio. This
portion of the excerpt reads, ‘‘another spe-
cies, smaller, as yet little known, of which
I shall speak later.’’?? Dr. Burret also cites
Baron von Thielmann’s Vzer Wege durch
Amerika, but appears to have overlooked
André’s name, mentioned in a footnote.

27 AnpRH, EpovuaRrp. Les palmares de Ceroxylon
andicola en Colombie. Illust. Hort. 25: 176. 1878.

BOTAN Y.—New names in Quercus and Osmanthus.!
(Communicated by WiuuiaM A. Dayton.)

U.S. Forest Service.

New names for four natural hybrids in
Quercus and validation of a combination in
Osmanthus are needed for the revision of the
Check list of the forest trees of the United
States, now nearing completion. The four
names in use in Quercus all must be rejected
as later homonyms under Articles 60 (3)
and 61 of the International Rules of Bo-
tanical Nomenclature (Ed. 3. 1935). As no
other names are available, new epithets are
desired under Article 69. Two of the names
were used earlier for fossils, which are not
included in indexes of living plants. How-
ever, the rules of botanical nomenclature
apply to recent and fossil plants alike (Ar-
ticle 9).

Though it may be questioned whether it
is useful or necessary to give hybrids bi-
nominal names like species, as permitted
by Article 31, this established custom is
followed here for uniformity. In genera of
many species that cross readily, the number
of natural and artificial hybrids may exceed
the total number of species. For example,
the number of named natural hybrids of
Quercus in the United States, already more
than 70 and still growing, is greater than
the number of native arborescent species of
the genus. Experimental evidence of the

1 Received October 17, 1942.

VOL. 33, No. 1

Recognition of André’s publication es-
tablishes the botanical identity of the dis-
tinct species of waxpalm that occurs on the
western slope of the Quindifo, in the region
of the town of Salento and of the rivers
Boquio and Quindio. The full extent of its
range is unknown. The elevations at which
it grows may be placed, from available data,
at 1,600 to 2,800 meters. The material thus
far collected in the Salento area is quite uni-
form in character. André’s brief descrip-
tion,?® substantiated by his own and later
collections, appears to be sufficiently ade-
quate to validate the name Cerozylon fer-
rugineum André.

28 The description seems to meet the require-

ments of articles 36 and 37 of the International
Rules.

ELBERT L. LiTTLe4, JR.,

origin and parentage has been presented
for very few of these supposed oak hybrids.
Muller (Amer. Midland Nat. 27: 478. 1942)
has recently suggested that some so-called
hybrids of Quercus may be only miscella-
neous variations unworthy of names. —

X< Quercus asheana Little, nom. nov. AsHE Oak
Quercus cinerea Michx. XQuercus laevis

Walt.

Quercus cinerea Xcatesbaet Ashe, Journ.
Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 11: 88. 1894;
Small, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 22: 76,
pls. 234, 235. 1895.

Quercus brevifolia Xcatesbaer Sudw., U. S.
Dept. Agr. Div. Forestry Bull. 14: 170.
1897.

<Quercus ashet Trel. (Q. catesbaet Xc-
nerea), Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 56: 48.
1917; nomen nudum. Sarg., Man. Trees
North Amer. ed. 2, 254. 1922; nomen
nudum.

<XQuercus ashei Trel., Mem. Nat. Acad.
Sci. 20: 13, 156, 200. 1924. Non Quercus
ashet Sterrett, Journ. Elisha Mitchell
Sel SOCK Stl oa O22.

A new name is needed for the hybrid between
Quercus cinerea Michx. (Hist. Chénes Amér.
no. 8, pl. 14. 1801) and Quercus laevis Walt.
(Fl. Carol. 234. 1788; Q. catesbaet Michx.) be-
cause XQuercus ashei Trel. is a later homonym

Jan. 15, 1943

dating from 1924 instead of 1917 (Article 45).
<Quercus ashei Trel. (Proc. Amer. Phil. Soe.
56: 48. 1917) founded only upon “‘(Q. catesbaet
X<cinerea),’’ without description or citation of
a previous one, must be rejected as a nomen
nudum, because under Article 31 the name of
a hybrid is subject to the same rules as names
of species. Mention of the two supposed parent
species without description would not be valid
publication of a hybrid binomial under Articles
37 and 44,

Before the name XQuercus ashet Trel. was
properly published in 1924 by reference to
Ashe’s early description, Quercus ashei Sterrett
had been valJidly published in 1922 for another
oak. Quercus ashet Sterrett was renamed Quer-
cus similis Ashe (Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci.
Soc. 40: 43. 1924), which is to be rejected under
Article 60 (1) as superfluous, and was also re-
duced to a synonym of Quercus stellata f.
paludosa Trel. (Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. 20: 104,
105. 1924). Thus, Quercus ashei Sterrett is a
synonym, and Quercus asher Trel. is a later
homonym. The new epithet for the hybrid,
the range of which is recorded as Georgia, also
honors the discoverer of this oak, the late Wil-
liam Willard Ashe.

< Quercus burnetensis Little, nom. nov.
BuRNET Oak

Quercus macrocarpa Michx. XQuercus vir-
ginia Mill.

x<Quercus coloradensis Ashe, Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 49: 268. 1922.

Non Quercus coloradensis Lesq., Mus.
Comp. Zool. Bull. 16: 46. 1888 (fossil,
Kocene, Colorado).

The later homonym XQuercus coloradensis
Ashe, named for a river in Texas, is a hybrid
between Quercus macrocarpa Michx. (Hist.
Chénes Amér. no. 2, pl. 2, 3. 1801) and Quercus
virginiana Mill. (Gard. Dict. Ed. 8, Quercus
no. 16. 1768). This hybrid was discovered by
Ashe along the Colorado River above Marble
Falls in Burnet County, Tex., from which
county the new name is taken.

Quercus coloradensis Lesq. is a fossil species
from the Tertiary (Eocene epoch, Denver for-
mation) at Golden, Colo. It was described by
Lesquereux from two specimens collected in
1883, but Knowlton (U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof.
Paper no. 155: 54. 1930) later could locate only
one specimen, which was so fragmentary that

LITTLE: NEW NAMES IN QUERCUS AND OSMANTHUS 9

it was not worth figuring. Trelease (Mem. Nat.
Acad. Sci. 20: 27. 1924) cited Quercus colo-
radensis Lesq. among the fossil oaks of America
but did not mention XQuercus coloradensis
Ashe, which was published just two years be-
fore Trelease’s monograph. Camus (Les Chénes
2: 754. 1939) noted that Ashe’s hybrid was a
later homonym but did not rename it.

< Quercus cravenensis Little, nom. nov.
CAROLINA Oak

Quercus cinerea Michx. XQuercus mari-
landica Muenchh.

x<Quercus carolinensis Trel. (Q. cinerea
x marilandica), Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc.
56:48. 1917; nomen nudum. Sarg., Man.
Trees North Amer., ed. 2, 266. 1922;
nomen nudum.

<Quercus carolinensis Trel., Mem. Nat.
Acad. Sci. 20: 14. 1924. Non Quercus
carolinensis Muenchh., Hausvater 5:
254. 1770. Non Quercus caroliniensis
Young [Young, William, Jr.], Cat. Arbr.
Arb. Pl. Herb. Amer. 53. 1783; nomen
subnudum.

Quercus cinerea X nigra Ashe, Journ. Elisha
Mitchell Sci. Soc. 11: 91. 1894.

The hybrid between Quercus cinerea Michx.
(Hist. Chénes Amér. no. 8, pl. 14. 1801) and
Quercus marilandica Muenchh. (Hausvater 5:
253. 1770) should be given a new name, as
<Quercus carolinensis Trel. is a later homonym.
XQuercus carolinensis Trel. was published in
1917 as a nomen nudum based merely upon
““(Q. cinerea X marilandica)’ and without de-
scription. In 1924 it was validly published by
reference to Ashe’s earlier description of Quer-
cus cinerea Xnigra. The new name XQuercus
cravenensis is based upon the same description
by Ashe (Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 11:
91. 1894), though the parent species formerly
known as Quercus nigra now bears the name
Quercus marilandica. The hybrid has been re-
corded from Craven County, N. C., from which
the new epithet was taken, and from Georgia
and Texas.

Strangely, XQuercus carolinensis Muenchh.,
which was not included in the Index Kewensis,
has not been mentioned by recent authors,
though it was validated as a binomial in the
same rare work with three other pre-Linnaean
species. These three important species of east-
ern United States are Quercus marilandica and

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES .

Q. palustris, published by Muenchhausen on
the preceding page, and Q. coccinea, published
after Q. carolinensis on the same page.

As the identity of Quercus carolinensis
Muenchh. is not clear, it seems best to pass
over it as a nomen dubium (Article 63). No use-
ful purpose would be served by adopting it and
adding to the confusion among the old names of
the genus already replacing other names and
used with different meanings. Quercus caro-
linensis Muenchh. was based entirely upon
Quercus Caroliniensis, virentibus vents muricata
of Catesby (Nat. Hist. Car. Fla. Bahama Is.

1: 21, pl. 21, fig. 1. 1731), who in turn com-.

pared it with a slightly different, earlier species,
Quercus Virginiana rubris venis, muricata of
Plukenet (Alm. Bot. 309. 1696; Phytogr. pl. 54,
fig. 5. 1691). Linnaeus (Sp. Pl. 996. 1753) cited,
as synonyms of his variety Quercus rubra B,
both Catesby’s and Plukenet’s species, but
Muenchhausen without explanation asserted
that Q. carolinensis was different from Quercus
rubra. It was suggested by Valckenier Suringar
(Rijks Herbarium Leiden Meded. 56: 11. 1928)
that probably Linnaeus had not seen Catesby’s
and Plukenet’s plants but referred to their
drawings instead. Linnaeus’s variety 8 was des-
ignated later as Quercus rubra subserrata Lam.
(Eneyel. Méth. Bot. 1: 720. 1785), with Cates-
by’s and Plukenet’s names as synonyms. Sar-
gent (Rhodora 17: 38. 1915; 18: 46. 1916) inter-
preted Catesby’s figure of a single leaf and an
acorn to represent the northern red oak. When
he proposed that Quercus rubra L. be rejected
as a nomen ambiguum, Rehder (Journ. Arnold
Arb. 19: 283-284. 1938) indicated also that
Catesby’s name apparently was referable to
the northern red oak. Svenson (Rhodora 41:
522. 1939), in advocating the name Quercus
rubra L. (emend. Du Roi) for the northern
red oak, mentioned ‘“‘the very crude figure
by Catesby.” Though Quercus carolinensis
Muenchh. possibly might be interpreted as an
available name for the northern red oak, it is
hoped that this name of uncertain identifica-
tion will not be adopted for any species.

Quercus caroliniensis Young, published in a
commercial catalog with a very brief, indefinite
French description, should be rejected as it is
scarcely more than a nomen nudum and is not
recognizable. It was not listed in the Index
Kewensis.

VOL. 33, No. 1

< Quercus filialis Little, nom. nov.
VARILEAF Oak

Quercus phellos L. XQuercus velutina Lam.

XQuercus inaequalis Palmer and Steyer-
mark, Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 22: 521.
1935. Non Quercus inaequalis Watelet,
Descr. Pl. Foss. Bass. Paris 136, pl. 35,
fig. 8. 1866 (fossil, Eocene, France).

XQuercus filialts is a new name for the hy-
brid between Quercus phellos L. (Sp. Pl. 994.
1753) and Quercus velutina Lam. (Encyel.
Méth. Bot. 1: 721. 1785). xQuercus inaequalis
Palmer and Steyermark must be rejected for
this hybrid because it is a later homonym of
the fossil species, Quercus inaequalis Watelet,
from the Tertiary (Eocene epoch) in Belleu,
France. (Incidentally, Watelet’s fossil species
was reduced to a synonym of Pasaniopsis
retinervis Sap. and Mar. by Fritel, Journ. de
Bot. 22: 160. 1909.) The range of this hybrid, —
according to Palmer and Steyermark, is from
southeastern Missouri to Arkansas and Louisi-
ana. The new epithet refers to the hybrid origin
as the filial generation or offspring of a cross
between parents of different species.

Sargent (Silva North Amer. 8: 180, pl. 436.
1895) interpreted XQuercus heterophylla Michx.
f. (Hist. Arb. Amér. 2: 87, pl. 16. 1812) as a
hybrid between Quercus phellos and Quercus
velutina, the supposed parents of XQuercus
filialis. However, Hollick (Bull. Torrey Bot.
Club. 15: 303-309, illus. 1888) concluded that
<XQuercus heterophylla Michx. f. was a hybrid
between Quercus phelios and Quercus rubra
(now Quercus borealis var. maxima (Marsh.)
Sarg.). Later (Sci. Amer. 121: 422, 429-430,
432, illus. 1919), he demonstrated this parent-
age to be correct by planting acorns of the
hybrid and obtaining among the young trees
individuals like the two parent species and
many intermediate ones. Small (Man. South-
east. Fl. 428, 430. 1933) designated xQuercus
dubia (without author) as a hybrid between
Quercus phelios and Quercus velutina.

Osmanthus megacarpus (Small) Small ex
Little, comb. nov. BigrrRuIT OSMANTHUS

Amarolea megacarpa Small, Man. South-
east. Fl. 1043, 1507. 1933.

Osmanthus megacarpa Small, Man. South-
east. Fl. 1043. 1933; as synonym.

JAN. 15, 19438

Osmanthus megacarpa Small; Gray Herbar-
ium Card-Index, Issue 141; ‘In synon.”’

Osmanthus megacarpus Small; Hill, Index
Kew. Sup. 9: 196. 1938; ‘in syn.”

When he published the new genus A marolea
Small (Man. Southeast. Fl. 1043, 1507. 1933),
a segregate from Osmanthus Lour. (family
Oleaceae), Small described one new species,
Amarolea megacarpa Small, listing at the end

CROIZAT: NOTES ON AMERICAN EUPHORBIACEAE il

of the description and as a synonym the name
“TOsmanthus megacarpa Small].”’ This name
in Osmanthus, just cited as a synonym, was not
validly published there under Article 40. The
Gray Herbarium Card-Index and Index Kew-
ensts Supplementum both stated that the name
was published in synonymy and thus did not
validate it. The combination is published here
merely to avoid making it unintentionally.

BOTAN Y.—Notes on American Euphorbiaceae, with descriptions of eleven new

species.)
municated by E. P. Ki.ure.)

It was my privilege to visit the United
States National Herbarium during the sum-
mer of 1941, and the descriptions and notes
that follow are based largely upon material
seen at that time. Herbaria at which the
specimens cited in this paper are deposited
are indicated thus: AA, Arnold Arboretum;

GH, Gray Herbarium of Harvard Univer-
sity; US, U. 8S. National Herbarium.

Andrachne L.

Pax and Hoffmann completely misunder-
stood this genus within the American range.
They treat? Andrachne phyllanthoides Nutt. as
a species of Savia Willd., a manifest error as
the floral morphology of these two genera is
very different and they are not even closely
related. Andrachne is nearest Phyllanthus and
Actephila, whereas Savia is consanguineous
with Cleistanthus and Amanoa. Further, these
authors place A. brittonit Urb. in the section
Phylianthidea, which is another error as this
species is not close to A. microphylla Baill.,
the standard-species of that section, but is
probably nearest to A. telephioides L. An-
drachne ? cuneifolia Britton, which is over-
looked by Pax and Hoffmann in their account
of the American species, is not an Andrachne
but a species of Phyllanthus (see the new com-
bination effected under Phyllanthus).

Andrachne microphylla (Lam.) Baill. Et. Gén.
Euphorb. 577. 1858; Muell.-Arg. in DC.
Brodr., 1573-237, 1866; Pax & Hoftm.
Pflanzenreich IV. 147. 15: 178. 1922:

1 Received August 12, 1942.
* Pflanzenreich IV. 147. 15: 184. 1922; Nat.
Pflanzenfam. 19c: 66. 1931.

Lon Croizat, Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University.

(Com-

Croton microphyllum Lam. Encycl. Méth,
22 212-786.

Phyllanthidea microphylla Didr. Kj6b. Vid.
Meddel. 1857: 150. 1857.

So far as I am aware, nothing in the litera-
ture indicates that this species has been re-
ported since the time of Dombey. A fragment of
the type, generously given me by Professor
Humber of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle,
Paris, shows that here belong (1) Pennell 14492
—Peru: Depto. Lima: Near Viscas, along Rio
Chillén, alt. 1,800—2,000 meters (US); (2)
Haught 39—Peru: Depto. Piura: Prov. Paita:
Talara (US; distributed as ‘‘Tragia?’’).

Andrachne ciliato-glandulosa (Millsp.) Croiz.,
comb. nov.

Phyllanthus ciliato-glandulosus Millsp. Proce.

California Acad. JJ, 2: 219. 1889.

Tragia ciliato-glandulosa M. E. Jones, MS.

in sched. (an tantum?).

This annual, endemic to Lower California,
so closely resembles A. microphylla as to be
very easily confused with it. Its characters are
those of Andrachne sect. Phyllanthidea, there
being a minute pistillode in the female flower.
Millspaugh erred in crediting this species to
Phyllanthus sect. Menarda, with which it has
no relationship. The occurrence of very similar
plants in Peru and lower California is not al-
together unexpected, but it is interesting to
note that A. aspera Spreng., endemic from the
Punjab to Morocco, is very closely allied to
A. microphylla and A. ciliato-glandulosa, and
that A. phyllanthoides from the United States,
is near A. colchica, from the Caucasus. The
distribution of al] these species is undoubtedly
pre-Tertiary.

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Phyllanthus L.

Phyllanthus cuneifolius (Britton) Croiz., comb.
nov.
Andrachne ? cuneifolia Britton, Mem. Torrey
Club 16: 72. 1920.

Apparently near P. orbicularis H.B.K., as it
seems to have the stipitate ovary and the pe-
culiar & disc of that species.

A species published with a question mark
as to the genus is not a nomen provisorium.®

Phyllanthus botryanthus Muell.-Arg. in DC.
Rrodr. 152273235 SoG:
Glochidion botryanthum Pax & Hoffm. Nat.
Pflanzenfam. 19c: 58. 1931.

The two following collections, on comparison
with Plée 55 and 56 (type material, AA), belong
here: (1) Pittter 10521—Venezuela: San Mar-
tin, Rio Palomar (AA); (2) Puttier 11914—
Venezuela: Miranda: Puente de Turumo, road
from Petare to Guatire, ‘“‘Small tree in forest,
up to 4 meters” (AA).

Pax and Hoffmann have an untenable con-
cept of Glochidion. This may be retained as a
genus only with the understanding that its
species form a natural group that it is not pos-
sible to define with reference to a set of con-
ventional characters. Glochidion is ‘“‘good’’ in
India, China, Indochina, and Malaysia but is
apt to turn ‘“‘bad” in New Guinea and Oceania,
for here its characters merge with those of
Phyllanthus. Naturally, it is a serious error to
introduce Glochidion to the floras of America
merely because certain species of American
Phyilanthus have styles that tend to remain
connate rather than to expand. These species
may exhibit the technicalities of the style that
are used to circumscribe Glochidion, but since
they lack a natural affinity with this genus
they can not be treated under it. I know few
other families in which the problems of generic
definition are so involved as those of the
Euphorbiaceae, a genus under this family more
often than not standing or falling on account of
considerations that do not immediately bear
upon the peculiarity of its floral morphology.

Phyllanthus L. Sect. Elutanthos
Croiz., sect. nov.
Foliis fructibusque magnis, inflorescentiis

® See Croizat, Journ. Arn. Arb. 21: 499. 1940;
op. cit. 22: 137. 1941.

VOL. 33, NO. 1

laxe racemosis ramis filiformibus habitu effu-
sis; perianthio utriusque sexus 6-lobo, stamini-
bus saepissime in columnam connatis, disco in
2 subconnato vel libero, in @ libero. Species
typica: Phyllanthus glaucescens H.B.K. (=P.
adenodiscus Muell.-Arg.).

Leaves and fruit usually large to very large
but these not woody; inflorescence laxly race-
mose, 10-30 cm long, axillary or pseudoter-
minal, its axes mostly slender or filiform;
flowers o& numerous, prevailingly clustered in
groups, @ fewer, basal or apical; perianth
usually 6-lobed, o with 1-3 stamens connate
within a staminal column or more seldom free,
@ with a disk of erect, subconnate, or free
glands alternating with the lobes. 3

Prevailingly Mexican and Central American
woody endemics with a striking habit, reminis-
cent of certain Menispermaceae (e.g., Hyper-
baena Miers), at first suggesting a genus other
than Phyllanthus but closely related to classic
species of this genus in every technical detail
of their floral morphology. Standard-species:
Phyllanthus glaucescens H.B.K. Nov. Gen. 2:
115. 1817 (=P. adenodiscus Muell.-Arg. Lin-
naea 32: 23. 1863).

The material of this section is insufficient and
too imperfect to make an adequate key to the
species, at least one, P. oaxacanus Brandeg.,
lacking staminate flowers. The following out-
line, however, will be of some use in distin-
guishing them. Two new species described
below are included.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

Staminal column none; stamens 3, solute......
cote Sit ree oat: P.. coalcomanensis Croiz.

Staminal column present; stamens connate.
Anthers 2....P. tequilensts Robins. & Greenm.
Anthers 6.

Male flowers delicate, lobes longer than
broad; staminal column slender; axes of
inflorescence often squamulose...........
TAN ie as 2 ene ne eae P. glaucescens H.B.K.

Male flowers delicate; axes of inflorescence
bearing flowers from pulvinate buds.....
Ai. thes Guat te Bera IC ae P. huallagensis Croiz.

Male flowers not delicate with broadly ovate
lobes; staminal column robust; axes of
inflorescence not squamulose.

Inflorescence long, diffuse............

gid lia cals eee AC a P. laxiflorus Benth.
Inflorescence short...) 42 4 ser eee

P. chiapensis Brandeg.
Male-flowers unknowml..-< 902.) . «ce =i-scee
P. oaxacanus Brandeg.

eoeeseceee eee se © o ©

Jan. 15, 1943

Phyllanthus coalcomanensis Croiz., sp. nov.

- Arbor; foliis magnis ad 15 em longis; in-
florescentia laxiflora; floris # perianthio 6-lobo,
ca. 6 mm lato, staminibus 3 liberis, glandulis
discretis; floris @ perianthio 6-lobo, disco e
glandulis discretis, ovario globuloso, stylis 3
reflexis. Ad P. glaucescentem H.B.K. accedit,
at staminibus discretis statim dignoscitur.

A tree or shrub about 3 m high, the older
bark reddish, wrinkled and lenticeled, quite
glabrous; leaves 5-15 cm long, 4.5-12 em broad,
blackish when dried (only young leaves seen),
thinnish, probably slightly glaucescent beneath
in life, broadly ovate, very broadly acuminate
at the tip, truncate to truncate-cordate at the
base, with about six pairs of spreading pri-
maries, widely branching toward the margin
of the blade; petiole not over 1 cm long; stipules
nearly petaloid in texture at least at the mar-
gin, irregularly broad-ovate, entire, much
veined, up to 1 cm long, 0.7 em wide; inflores-
cence o' of effuse, many-flowered sub-filiform
lateral and subterminal racemes up to 25-30
em long, monoecious; inflorescence 9? perhaps
fascicled and axillary but, more likely, occupy-
ing the basal part of some or all the @ axes;
flower o: perianth about 6-7 mm broad on a
slender pedicel about 6-8 mm long, the lobes
6, hyaline, costate in center, ligulate, rounded
at the tip, about 3 mm long, alternating with
as many disciform to globulose glands (nec-
taries), these not forming a continuous disk:
stamens 3, free, connate merely at the base;
filaments fleshy about 1 mm long ,the anthers
transverse; flower 92: perianth (not dissected,
only one seen) up to 20 mm broad on a pedicel
about 15 mm long, the lobes apparently 5,
blackish when dry, thinly hyaline at the mar-
gin, broadly ovate to rotundate, about 8 mm
long and broad; ovary globulose, quite gla-
brous, manifestly suleate on the keels and
commissures, about 4 mm long and wide; styles
3, reflexed, apparently shortly bilobed at the
tip, about 1-1.5 mm long; glands as many as
the lobes and alternating with them, erect,
puncticulate at the upper lip, apparently not
connate into a close disk.

Type: Hinton 15857, Mexico: Michoacdén,
Distr. Coalecomdn, Aquila, 400 meters. “Tree
3 meters high. Flowers white, raceme pendu-
lous, in barranca”’ (US). Syntype: Hinton
15859, same locality and date, ‘‘2 meters high.

CROIZAT: NOTES ON AMERICAN EUPHORBIACEAE 13

Flowers purple, racemes pendulous; different
from 15857” (US).

Hinton 15857 and 15859 are the same spe-
cies, the collector having been misled by the
changing color of the flowers, apparently
purple at unfolding or before unfolding, white
in full anthesis.

Phyllanthus huallagensis Standl. MS. in

sched.

Arbor, foliis ad 9 cm longis, subtus glauces-
centibus: inflorescentia racemosa ad 25 cm
longa; floris @ perianthio ca. 4 mm lato,
staminibus 3 in columnan connatis, glandulis
discretis; floris @ perianthio ca. 6 mm lato,
glandulis subconnatis, ovario globuloso ad 2
mm lato, stylis 3 brevibus. Phyilanthum
tequilensem Robins. & Greenm. admonet.

A tree, 6 m high, quite glabrous, the older
bark much lenticeled and fissured, reddish
brown; leaves 4-9 cm long, 3-5 cm broad,
brownish when dried, firmly chartaceous,
glaucescent beneath in life and slightly so in
dried specimens, round-elliptic, shortly and
broadly acuminate at the tip, cuneate to
round-cuneate, not cordate at the base, with
about six pairs of broadly ascending primaries,
conspicuous beneath, less so above, the veinlets
fairly conspicuous; petiole less than 5 mm long;
stipules triangular, small, apparently not long
persistent; inflorescences of axillary and sub-
terminal, slender but not filiform racemes up to
20-25 cm long, bearing numerous clustered
o flowers arising from manifestly pulvinate
buds and many less 9 flowers, as seen in an
apical position; flower o@: perianth about 4
mm broad, borne on a slender pedicel about 10
mm long, the lobes 6, more or less ovate to
elliptic, about 2 mm long and 1.5-2 mm broad,
alternating with 6 small glands; stamens 3,
fused into a staminal column about 1 mm long;
flower @: perianth about 5-6 mm broad, borne
on a pedicel about 3.5 mm long, the lobes 6,
more or less ovate, 1.5-2 mm long, alternating
with six suberect curved glands, almost con-
nate to form a continuous disc underneath the
ovary; ovary globose, about 2 mm long and
broad; styles 3, short, more or less reflexed and
cleft at the tip.

Type: Klug 4240, Depto. San Martin, Peru:
Juan Jui, Alto Rfo Huallaga, alt. 400-800
meters, in forest, Jan. 1936 (AA).

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

This is the only species of this section known,
so far, from Peru, somewhat reminiscent of
P. tequilensis Robins. & Greenm. from Mexico
and not too far removed from P. botryanthus
Muell. from Venezuela.

As a further help in sight-identification of
species of the section Elutanthos, the following
ranges are given: P. coalcomanensis, Michoa-
ean, Mexico; P. tequilensis, Jalisco, Mexico;
P. glaucescens (including P. adenodiscus, which
might be retained as a variety in a critical
study of this group, but does not impress me as
having a clear specific status), the entire east-
ern coast of Mexico from British Honduras
and Yucatan to Tamaulipas, Mexico; P. lazt-
florus, Guatemala; P. chiapensis, Chiapas,
Mexico—very near P. laxiflorus as far as seen;
P. huallagensis, Depto. San Martin, Peru; P.
oaxacanus, Oaxaca, Mexico. These ranges are
fairly indicative of the various centers of
endemism for the Euphorbiaceae of this region.

Phyllanthus neoleonensis Croiz., sp. nov.

Fruticulus ligneus, intricatus; foliis vix 2 cm
longis, petiolis quam stipulis brevioribus, vix
2 mm longis; inflorescentia cymulosa, axillari;
perianthio floris @ ca. 2 mm lato, 6-lobo,
staminibus 3 ad basem liberis, glandulis 6
liberis; perianthio floris @ ca. 5 mm lato, 6-
lobo, stylis brevibus; semine trigono, arillo
granuloso scabro. Phyllanthum galeottianum
Baill. atque P. liebmannianum Muell.-Arg.
admonet.

A low, woody and much intricate shrub,
probably not over 1—2 feet high, the innova-
tions herbaceous or subherbaceous, quite gla-
brous, the older shoots woody, slender, some-
times zigzag; leaves 1-2 cm long, 0.5-1.5 cm
broad, obovate to elliptic, rounded and ob-
scurely mucronate at the tip, more or less
rounded to cuneate at the base, pale olive
above, grayish or pink-grayish underneath, the
primaries obscure, delicate, about 4-5 pairs;
petiole less than 2 mm long; stipules 2-3 mm
long (that is, longer than the petioles), seta-
ceous towards the tip, irregularly broadened
towards the base, venulose, mostly purplish;
inflorescences bisexual in axillary cymules;
flower o: perianth about 2-2.5 mm wide on a
slender pedicel about 4 mm long, the lobes 6,

elliptic to elliptic-ovate, 1.5 mm long, 0.75 mm ~

broad, alternating with as many roundish

VOL. 33, No. |

glands: stamens 3, free except at the very base;
flower ¢@: perianth about 5 mm wide, on a
pedicel about 10 mm long: lobes 6, about 2—2.5
mm long, 1.5-2 mm wide, ovate, sometimes
acuminate and slightly glandular at the tip,
glands 6, erect, curving against the ovary, not
connate into a disc; ovary glabrous, 2 mm long
and wide or less, sulcate; styles 3, short, barely
bilobed at the apex; seed trigonous, 2 mm long,
1.5 mm broad, the testa brown, smoothish,
the aril black, as a loose, hard, granular dust
on the testa.

Type: Pringle 13881 bis, Nuevo Leén, Mex-
ico: Limestone ledges, Sierra Madre, near
Monterrey (GH). Syntypes: C. H. & M. TI.
Mueller 314 & 315, same locality as the type
(AA); Pringle 10810, Monterrey (GH);
Pringle 1198, Sierra Madre (GH).

The Muller material was originally deter-
mined with doubt as P. ferax Standl., a species
that P. neoleonensis superficially resembles in
its vegetative characters but from which it
differs in the much more robust habit and in the
details of floral morphology. Phyllanthus
galeottianus Baill., which is in all probability
represented by Pringle 4443, collected near
Guadalajara, Jalisco (GH), is unlike P. neo-
leonensis because of its more robust habit and
its stamens being connate to form a staminal
column. A plant bearing some resemblance to
P. neoleonensis, but more delicate and probably
not different from P. liebmannianus Muell.-
Arg., is represented by Purpus 2313, Zacuapan
and vicinity, Veracruz (GH). Lastly, Gawmer
508, Gauwmer 1817, Gawmer & Sons 23543 (all
AA), distributed as P. lathyroides, are prob-
ably conspecific with P. ferax Standl. (Bartlett
12157, Petén, Guatemala; US).

Phyllanthus mexiae Croiz., sp. nov.

Frutex; foliis setaceis, bracteis in ramulis
florigeris (vulgo pro foliis laudatis) ad 4 cm
longis; inflorescentia cymulosa axillari; floris
@ perianthio ca. 2 mm lato, staminibus 3 in
columnam connatis; floris @ perianthio ca. 7
mm lato, 6-lobo, ovario vix 1 mm magno,
stylis 3 brevibus.

A shrub, quite glabrous, the innovations
smooth and ribbed; leaves (strictly speaking)
none, transformed into acuminate stipules 2
mm long or less, marcescent at the axil of the
stiffly spreading, leafy-bracteate florigerous

JAN. 15, 19438

axes; bracts of the florigerous axes (‘‘leaves’’)
2.5-4 em long, 2—2.5 em broad, elliptic-ovate,
thinly membranous, greenish above, pale gray-
ish below but probably not glaucescent, very
broadly acuminate, sometimes mucronate at
the tip, more or less broadly and irregularly
cuneate at the base with 5-7 pairs of thin pri-
maries; petiole about 3 mm long; stipules tri-
angular, not over 2 mm long, marcescent or
deciduous; inflorescences bisexual in lax clusters
in the axils of foliaceous bracts (‘‘leaves’’);
flower o: perianth 2 mm broad or less, on a
capillary pedicel 3-5 mm long, the lobes thin,
hyaline, the glands 3 surrounding the base of
the column formed by 3 connate stamens, about
1.5 mm long; flower ?: perianth about 7 mm
broad on a pedicel about 10 mm long, the lobes
6, ovate-elliptic, 3 mm long, 1.5 mm broad,
hyaline, thinly greenish-costate along the mid-
dle, alternating with as many erect, incurved,
more or less regular glands; ovary glabrous,
somewhat depressed, about 1 mm long and
wide, with 3 reflexed styles, short and mani-
festly cleft at the tip.

Type: Ynes Mexia 6718, Ecuador, Prov. of
Leon, Canton Pajilli: Hacienda Solento, near
Santa Rosa, alt. 1,000 meters, “shrub 5 m.
high, in forest in cloud belt. Fish-poison,”’ Nov.
1934 (US).

In certain groups of Phyllanthus true leaves
are present, the florigerous axes being often
reduced, bracteate, and, strictly speaking,
leafless branchlets (see P. laxiflorus). In other
groups of the same genus the true leaves are
represented only by scales, the aspect and func-
tion of foliage being assumed by the bracts of
the florigerous axes (see P. mexiae). These
peculiarities, seldom if ever noticed, are of the
utmost importance because they furnish a
ready key to the understanding of all the very
variable inflorescences of the phyllanthoid
alliance. It is worthy of note that true leaves
appear on seedlings of species (e.g., EH. ntrurt
L.) which in their more mature aspect bear
only “‘leafy’’ florigerous axes.

Croton L.
Croton aristophlebius Croiz., sp. nov.
Ligneus; apicibus brunneo-ochraceis, sub-
argillaceo-tomentosis; foliis elliptico-lanceolatis
ad 12 cm longis, venulis venisque valde im-
pressis, primariis ca. 9-12 jugis; perianthio

CROIZAT: NOTES ON AMERICAN EUPHORBIACEAE 15

floris 2: lobis sub fructu discretis, ca. 6 mm
longis, pedicello ca. 15 mm longo, columella
ad 7 mm longa.

Crotonem celtidifolium Baill. habitu bene
simulat at indumento toto caelo discrepat.

A tree or shrub; innovations brown-ochra-
ceous, the indumentum of rough, very persist-
ent, subargillaceous trichomes; leaves 6-12 cm
long, 2-5 cm wide, elliptic-lanceolate, acumi-
nate to short-caudate at the tip, round-cuneate
at the base, glabrous, dull green, smooth above,
with sharply impressed veins and veinlets,
underneath pale-ochraceous, the indument
compactly scurfy-tomentose, the veins about
9-12 pairs, anastomosing near the entire mar-
gin, the tertiary veins sharp; petiole 1.5-2.5
cm long, vestite like the innovations, bearing
2-4 pedicelled, disciform glands at the apex on
the abaxial face of the blade; stipules almost
none; inflorescence of spicate, bisexual axes,
rather slender, up to 15-20 cm long; flower <@:
perianths immature, about 2 mm long; flower

2 (only the perianth seen after fruiting) : calyx
about 12-14 mm wide, on an ascending, ulti-
mately recurved pedicel about 14-17 mm long,
rather slender, the lobes 5, entire, ligulate to
elliptic, short-acuminate to rounded at the tip,
nowhere imbricating, 5-6 mm long, 1.5-2 mm
wide, not accrescent; petals as setaceous brown-
ish ligulae between the sepals; columella after
dehiscence about 7 mm long.

Type: Bro. Daniel 1912, Depto. Antioquia,
Colombia: Piedras Blaneas, July 1938 (US).

A strong species, distantly suggesting C.
celtidifolius Baill. but with a very different
indumentum.

Caperonia St.-Hil.
Caperonia chiltepecensis Croiz., sp. nov.

Herba, indumento delicato interdum glandu-
loso; foliis elliptico-lanceolatis vel obovatis,
nervis primariis ca. 10—14-jugis, haud profunde
dentatis; floris # perianthio delicato, sepalis
triangularibus ca. 1.5 mm _ longis, petalis
tenuissimis, ligulatis ad 2 mm longis, stamini-
bus ca. 10 in serie duplici dispositis; floris @
perianthio ad 5 mm magno, sepalis petalisque
cum o sat congruentibus, ovario depresso 1
mm longo, 2 mm lato,dorso processibus 5~7 in
cocco quolibet ornato. Caperoniam zaponetam
Mansf. Peruvianam potius in mentem vocat
quam C. palustrem, at magis delicata est.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Herb with dimorphic pubescence of short,
appressed setulose eglandulose hairs and more
or less spreading, delicate glandulose trichomes,
these not over 1 mm long; leaves fairly thin,
greenish on both faces, 5-8 em long, 2-4 cm
broad, elliptic-lanceolate at the apex of the
shoot, more or less regularly obovate at its base,
sparingly and weakly setulose on both faces, the
indumentum scattered below, mostly restricted
to the primaries above, the primaries in 10-14
pairs, thin, ascending the tertiaries manifest,
the serration shallow, the teeth barely spread-
ing at their apex, the petiole 5-10 mm long;
stipules setaceous, up to 3-4 mm long; inflores-
cences on slender axillary axes, short-branching
or dichotomous, up to 8-10 cm long: flower @:
perianth delicate, about 3 mm broad; sepals 5,
about 2.5 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, triangu-
lar; petals very thin, ligulate, about 2 mm long,
1.5-2 mm broad; stamens apparently 10, alter-
nating in two even series, the lower subsessile,
the upper borne upon a staminal column 1-1.5
mm long with filaments 0.5-1 mm long; flower

Q: perianth 4-5 mm broad, with a pedicel
about 2.5 mm long; sepals 5, elliptic, entire,
slightly glandular and cucullate at the apex,
somewhat strigulose on the back: petals 5, very
thin, white, 2-3 mm long, abruptly produced at
the base into a filiform claw about 1 mm. long,
otherwise ligulate, rotundate at the apex;
ovary depressed, 1 mm long, 2 mm broad, each
keel bearing 5-7 triangular processes, fleshy at
the base, glandulose at the apex: styles 3 flabel-
late, irregularly cleft into 5-6 nearly terete
branches, about 3-4 mm long.

Type: Martinez-Calderén 334, Mexico, Oa-
xaca: Distr. Tuxtepec, Chiltepec and vicinity,
20 meters, 1941 (US).

Despite its being much more delicate in all
its parts this species seems to be most closely
allied with C. Zaponeta Mansf., from Peru
(Klug 3954, GH). It differs from C. palustris
St. Hil. in the finer indument, in the less open
and spreading serration, in the different epi-
carp, and in the general outline of the foliage.

Jatropha L.
Jatropha deutziiflora Croiz., sp. nov.

Stimulosa, folia visa ad 35-27 cm magna,
7-loba, basi optime sinuata; inflorescentia longe
pedunculata ca. 40 cm longa; perianthio floris
? ca. 10 mm longo, lobis 5 albicantibus, car-

VOL. 33, NO. 1-

nosulis, calyptratim deciduis; ovario glaberrimo
3 mm longo in disco insidente integro ca. 1 mm
crasso, stylis 3, quolibet apice in laciniis 6
diviso. Cum J. longipede Pax e descriptione
congruere videtur, in sect. Calyptrosolene.

Probably a large shrub, the specimen con-
sisting only of a leaf, a petiole, and a cyme with
2 flowers; leaf large, about 27 cm long, 35 cm
broad, quite glabrous on both faces, very thin,
brittle, greenish on both faces with brownish
veins, 7-lobed, the 3 median lobes subsimilar,
about 20 cm. long and 8 cm wide, with about
7-9 pairs of broadly spreading primaries and
with distant tertiaries often running parallel to
the main veins, the margin of the lobes coarsely
and not profoundly dentate, lined by numerous
stimulose hairs, these not over 1.5—2.5 mm long,
inconspicuous, almost parallel with the margin
the lateral lobes faleating and shorter, the
external 2 hardly more than lobules, 5-6 cm
long, about 3.5 em broad, the base of the leaf
cut to form a wide sinus very nearly lined by
the excurrent midribs of the outer lobes, the
petiole quite herbaceous, ribbed, glabrous; in-
florescence a long-peduncled cyme about 40
cm long, armed below with ascending, rather
small, stimulose hairs, becoming almost un-
armed and finely puberulous at the tip, the
flowers much crowded upon short dichotomous —
branches; perianth @ about 10-11 mm long,
the 5 lobes about 8 mm long, 3 mm broad,
obovate to subspatulate, fleshy, quite whitish,
falling off neatly from the persistent greenish
base of the perianth; ovary quite glabrous, 3
mm long, 2 mm broad, on a continuous disk
about 1 mm thick; styles 3 about 2.5-3 mm
long, each divided at the tip into about six
branches, these sometimes shallowly cleft or
lobed at the apex.

Type: Martinez-Calderén 77, Mexico, Oa-
xaca: Tuxtepec, Chiltepec and vicinity, alt.
about 20 meters, July, 1940-February, 1941
(US).

Nearest to J. longipes Pax from Colombia.
Differs from the Mexican species of sect.
Calyptrosolen, to judge from descriptions, in
the glabrous ovary.

- Manihot Mill.

Manihot aesculifolia (H.B.K.) Pohl, Pl. Bras.
Ic. Descr. 1: 55. 1827; Muell.-Arg. in DC.
Prodr. 157: 1065. 1866; Pax & Hoffm.
Pflanzenreich IV. 147. 2: 58. 1910.

Jan. 15, 1943

Janipha aesculifolia H.B.K. Nov. Gen. 2: 85.
pl. 109. 1817.

Pax describes this species as having ‘‘limbus
membranaceus, basi cordatus, concolor,” list-
ing only the type, collected by Humboldt on
the Gulf of Campeche. Bangham 300, Hon-
duras: San Pedro Sula, 1929 (AA), erroneously
distributed as M. dulcis, so perfectly agrees
with the type-illustration of M. aesculifolva in
its vegetative and in floral characters that I
have little hesitation in referring it to this spe-
cies, despite its having a leaf that is not ‘‘con-
color’ but strongly glaucescent at the lower
face.

Manihot dulcis (J. F. Gmel.) Pax, Pflanzen-
reich, IV. 147. 2: 71. 1910.
Jatropha dulcis J. F. Gmel. Onom. Bot. 5:
7. 1772-1778, fide Pax.

Three collections from Peru, which very
likely represent the same species are: Killip &
Smith 22722, Depto. Ayachuco: Aina; Klug
2662, Depto. San Martin: Pongo de Caina-
rachi; Skutch 5009, Depto. Loreto: Rio Ucayali
(all AA). In this plant the leaf is almost always
3-foliate, sparingly pubescent to glabrate on
the veins, innovations, and floral axes. The
_ Skutch collection has a fruit that lacks ‘‘wings,”’
which, taken together with all the other charac-
ters, identifies the specimens cited as M. dulcis,
in the sense of Pax. Killip & Smith 22722 shows
remnants of a fine rufous pubescence and may
be M. dulcis var. ferruginea (Muell.-Arg.) Pax,
accepted by Mueller for the subandine regions
of Peru (DC. Prodr. 152: 1063. 1866, under
M. palmata (Vell.) Muell.-Arg.), but questioned
there by Pax. Manthot pavoniana Muell.-Arg.,
another Peruvian species, agrees so far as the
descriptions with the cited collections in some
characters, but differs in the glabrous perianth
and stamens. Killip & Smith 22722 and Klug
2662 have been identified as M. utilissima Pohl,
a determination which the fruit of Skutch 5009
now shows to be untenable.

Gymnanthes Swartz

Gymnanthes texana Standl. Proc. Biol. Soe.
Washington 39: 135. 1926.

This species is to be excluded from the
Euphorbiaceae. Inspection of Tharp 3634,
the type in the U. 8. National Herbarium,

CROIZAT: NOTES ON AMERICAN EUPHORBIACEAE Ly

having convinced me that the plant was not
of this family, I called it to the attention of
HK. J. Palmer, of the Arnold Arboretum, and of
V. L. Cory, of the Texas Agricultural Experi-
ment Station in Sonora. Both these botanists
promptly recognized it as Forestiera reticulata
Torr., an identification confirmed by the char-
acters of the wood of Tharp 3634, which show
unquestionable kinship with the Oleaceae. I
am deeply indebted to Mr. Cory for the fol-
lowing additional data (tn litt., Nov. 24, 1941):
‘“Tharp’s] material is identical with that which
I collected on a hillside sixteen miles north of
Comstock on August 15 of this year. My study
had convinced me that this was Forestiera
reticulata Torr. Mr. Ernest J. Palmer reports
that my material undoubtedly is of that spe-
cies. The peculiar thing about this plant is the
remarkable difference between the pistillate
and the staminate aspect. In my limited obser-
vation, the former grows to an height of six
feet or more, with leaves that are prominently
porulose beneath, and the plant is, in appear-
ance, a typical Forestiera. On the other hand,
the staminate plant, or at least the one I have
seen growing, is a foot or less in height with the
aspect of a shrubby species of Croton and the
leaves imperceptibly porulose. I made addi-
tional collections from this plant on November
12 and at this time it was easy to take it as a
Forestiera and not a spurge.”’

The following synonymy is consequently
affirmed :

Forestiera reticulata Torr. U. 8S. & Mex. Bound.
Bot. 168. 1859=Gymnanthes texana Standl.
Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 39: 135. 1926.

Senefeldera Mart.

The generic name has been spelled Sene-
feldera and Sennefeldera, and Mueller-Argo-
viensis has proposed! the latter spelling as an
alternative to the former. The correct version
is Senefeldera as given® by Pax and Hoffmann,
the genus having been named by Martius in
honor of Alois Senefelder (1771-1834), a citizen
of Munich, and the inventor of lithography.
The name of the lithographer of Vellozo, Flora
Fluminensis, as shown on the title-page of this
work, is Senefelder.

4 Mart, Fl. Bras. 112: 528. 1874.
5 Pflanzenreich LY. 147. 5: 23. 1912.

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Senefeldera verticillata (Vell.) Croiz., comb.
nov.
Omphalea verticillata Vell. Fl. Flum. 10: pl.
15. 1827.
Senefeldera multiflora Mart. Flora 242, Beibl.
2: 29. 1841; Pax & Hoffmann, Pflanzen-
reich IV. 147. 5: 23. 1912.

Pax and Hoffmann and J. Mueller have
placed O. verticillata Vell. in the synonymy of
S. multiflora Mart., failing, however, to effect
the combination required under the Interna-
tional Rules. I present this combination here,
believing that Vellozo’s plate 15 (not 152, as
cited by Pax and Hoffmann) is correctly under-
stood by all these authors to illustrate Sene-
feldera, not Omphalea.

Senefeldera macrophylla Ducke, Arch. Jard.
Bot. Rio de Janeiro 4: 113. 1925.

To this species or to a very nearly related
one belongs A. C. Smith 2960 (AA), collected
on the southern slopes of the Akarai Mountain
in the drainage basin of Rio Mapuera, Pard,
Brazil, 1938.

Senefeldera nitida Croiz., sp. nov.

Arbor; foliis 10-18 em longis, 6.5—8 em latis,
late ellipticis, apice breviter acuminato-mu-
cronatis, more proprio nitidis, venis primariis
ca. 12-jugis; capsula submatura 1.5 cm longa,
2.5 cm lata, laevissima.

A medium-size tree with quite glabrous in-
novations; leaves 10-18 cm long, 6.5-8 cm
broad, very broadly elliptic and very broadly
and shortly acuminate-mucronate, coriaceous,
brownish, glossy on both faces but especially
above, quite entire, very obscurely cordate at
the base and here barely glandular, the glands
scarlike and inconspicuous; primaries about 12
pairs, all patent, thin but sharp, the anas-
tomoses inconspicuous, the petiole 3-4 cm long;
inflorescence seen only in fruit and mostly
broken off, typical of the genus, subapical and
many-branched, the branches stoutish; only
one capsule seen, almost ripe, 1.5 em long, 2.5
cm broad, manifestly trigonous and depressed,
the rounded keels of the cocci thinly grooved,
the epicarp quite smooth.

Type: Krukoff 7126, Brazil, State of Ama-
zonas: Basin Rio Madeira, Municipality Hu-
mayta, on plateau between Rio Livramento
and Rio Ipixuna, 1934 (AA).

VOL. 33, NO. 1

Distributed as S. karsteniana Pax & Hoffm.,
Triana 5791-1, in the Colombian National
Herbarium, collected at Villavicencio, the clas-
sic locality of S. karsteniana, and in all prob-
ability this species, is certainly different from
Krukoff 7126. The peculiarly glossy foliage is
characteristic.

Senefeldera skutchiana Croiz., sp. nov.

Arbor; foliis 15-10 cm longis, 8-3 em latis,
late ellipticis, nervis primariis ca. 10—14-jugis
utrinque conspicuis, glandulis nullis vel subnul-
lis, petioli apice atrato; inflorescentia apicali,
paniculam decompositam simulante; floribus
o& vulgo ternatis, staminibus 5-8 in bracteolae
axilla ad 2 mm longae, margine hyalino erosae;
floribus @ bracteis 3 integris lanceolatis cir-
cumdatis, ad 2.5 mm longis, interdum flore
laterali @ auctis, ovario ad 2 mm longo sub-
fusiformi, stylis carnosis vix divaricatis.

A medium-sized tree, quite glabrous; leaves
10-15 cm long, 3-8 cm broad, firmly charta-
ceous to subcoriaceous, greenish when dry,
broadly elliptic, short-acuminate to apiculate
at the tip, the apex of the blade slightly glandu-
lar at the end of the midrib and here somewhat
reflexed, broadly cuneate to subrotund at the
base, the margins entire, the primary veins
about 10-14 pairs, sharp on both faces not all
anastomosing, the glands almost wanting, only
the apex of the petiole slightly enlarged, black-
ish when dry, and the base of the blade in
certain leaves obscurely spotted above, near
the insertion of the petiole, the petiole com-
paratively slender, 2.5-8 cm long; inflorescence
apical, of numerous spiciform stiffish axes,
about 20 cm long and wide, appearing as if
compound-panicled, the #@ flowers very nu-
merous, the @ fewer and basally borne
or tending to be mixed with the staminate on
certain axes; flowers co usually borne in 3’s
in the axil of an ovate to elliptic-ovate scale,
1.5-2 mm long, erose and thin at the margin,
the central flower very seldom reaching matur-
ity in the lower part of the florigerous axes
but usually evolute and alone in the upper one
by abortion of the lateral flowers, the pedicel
with a low articulation, about 2 mm long,
bearing adaxially a bract, open and holding
5-8 stamens about 1.5-2 mm long; flower
9: perianth of 3 lanceolate entire imbricate
bracts, sometimes glandular at the base inside,

Jan. 15, 1943

about 1.5-2.5 mm long, with an occasional
lateral & flower; ovary 1.5—-2 mm long, taper-
ing at both ends with rather fleshy styles not
divaricate, as seen, about 3 mm long.

Type: Skutch 4967, Peru, Depto. Hudnuco,
Tingo Marfa, alt. 2,500 feet, a tree 60 feet high
with yellowish flowers, August, 1940 (AA).
Syntype: Skutch 4961, same locality and date,
at 2,300 feet, (AA).

A very distinct species, suggesting at first
sight some rutaceous plant (for instance, re-
sembling Evodia), with comparatively slender
and numerous florigerous axes.

Pedilanthus Neck.

I reinstated® Tithymalus Mill., this being the
earlier validly published name for this group,
but Pedilanthus has subsequently been pro-
posed’ as a nomen genericum conservandum by
Wheeler. In view of the existing international
situation it is not likely that the Botanical
Congress can decide in the near future between
Tithymalus and Pedilanthus. Thus, not to
deepen the existing controversy and further to
disturb nomenclature, I accept Pedilanthus as
proposed by Wheeler.

Pedilanthus coalcomanensis Croiz., sp. nov.

Arbor 15-pedalis: innovationibus inflores-
centis lanulosis; bracteis floralibus conspicuis,
vinosis, ad 2.5 cm longis; cyathio horizontali
calcarato 15 mm longo, 10 mm lato; appendice
integra ad 10 mm longa, apice callosula, dorso
impresso-canaliculata, glandulis 4, lobis su-
peris 3 connatis, apice acuminatis, lobis la-
teralibus 2 apice rotundato-carinatis; floribus
@ (staminibus) ad 30; flore 9 (ovario) ad 4
mm longo (ut adest), gynophoro 5-7 mm longo,
stylo filiformi ad 13 mm longo, apice breviter
trifido, cruribus ad 2 mm longis. Species more
proprio bracteata, appendice cyathii integra.

A tree about 5 m high; innovations lanu-
lose, older wood with a grayish smooth bark,
glabrous; leaves seen none; inflorescence sur-
rounded by conspicuous bracts of variable
length but probably not longer than 2.5 em
and about 1.75-2.25 cm broad, ovate, mu-
cronulate, subcordate at the broadly clasping
base, wine-colored at the margins, softly whit-

6 Amer. Journ. Bot. 24: 703. 1937.
7 Contr. Gray Herb. no. 124: 47. 1939.

CROIZAT: NOTES ON AMERICAN EUPHORBIACEAE

ish pubescent, indument lanulose; internodes
of the cyme scarcely over 1 cm long, all lanu-
lose; cyathium manifestly calecarate, about 15
mm long, and 10 cm broad, the anterior margin
rounded, the posterior evidently produced,
horizontal or nearly so, wine-colored, on a
pedicel about 10-12 mm long, sparingly lanu-
lose; appendix entire, about 10 mm long, that
is, shorter than the cyathium, bearing three
grooves above, ending in an entire or scarcely
lobulate glandular tip; glands four, set under
the fornicate appendix, not stipitate, rather
small; upper calyx-lobes 3, connate for a longer
or shorter tract, about as long as the lateral
calyx-lobes, acuminate; stamens (in reality, @
flowers) about 20-30, 10-15 mm long; ovary
(2 flower), as seen, about 4 mm long, 2.5 mm
broad, glabrous, on a gynophore about 5-7
mm long; style filiform, 10-13 mm long, shortly
trifid at the tip, the branches 1.5-2 mm long,
slightly cleft to bilobed.

Type: Hinton 15765, Mexico: Coaleomdén,
Michoacdn. Sierra Naranjillo 1,550 m, tree
5 m, bracts red, locally known as candelvlla,
in woods, 1941 (US).

The apparently involved morphology of the
cyathium of Pedilanthus can easily be ex-
plained, if only it is realized that this cyathium
is homologous with a much coarctate inflores-
cence of Dalechampia, the upper part of the
inflorescence, which bears glands and & flower
in this genus, being replaced by a chamber
with glands in Pedilanthus. The lower part of
the inflorescence carries three @ flowers in
Dalechampia but only one @ flower and nu-
merous @ flowers in Pedilanthus. It stands to
reason that the structural details of the cy-
athium of Pedilanthus have as much taxonomic
significance as those of the inflorescence of
Dalechampia and that, unlike Huphorbia and
Chamaesyce, Pedilanthus can readily be keyed
on floral characters once the proper position
and evolution of these characters is understood.

Millspaugh’s fundamental paper® keys out
the species of sect. Hupedilanthus in two
groups,? one having an appendix entire, the
other bipartite. The latter group is once again
divided into two lesser divisions, with and with-
out colored floral bracts. Pedilanthus coalco-
manensis thus belongs to a group of its own,

8 Field Mus. Bot. 2: 353-371. 1913.
9 Op. cit. 354.

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

having an entire appendix and colored floral
bracts. I find no species, either in the herbaria
I have visited or in the descriptions I have read,
that agree with this new one.

Pedilanthus personatus Croiz., sp. nov.

Frutex ad 10 ped. altus; innovationibus pu-
berulis; cyathio calearato, horizontali ad 12
mm longo, 8 mm lato, appendice 8 mm longa,
acuminata, ad basem imam partita, glandulis
4, quarum 2 in infundibulo sacciformi ex ap-
pendice fornicata, 2 in suturis inter lobos su-
peros lateralesque; lobis superis 3, longe
acuminatis vix connatis; floribus # (stamin-
ibus) ad 20 vel ultra; flore 9 (ovario) tomen-
tello ca. 2.5 mm longo, gynophoro optime
articulato, stylo ca. 10 mm longo, stigmatibus
brevissimis.

A shrub 10 feet high; stems pale green, pu-
berulous at the tips, the inflorescence congested
in apical, very short cymes; leaves and bracts
not seen; cyathium puberulous, about 10-12
mm long and 8 mm broad, the appendix fully
8 mm long, rather pointed, cleft down to its
obscurely saccate base, bearing at the base and
on either side 2 stipitate glands; lateral lobes 2,
rounded at their apex; upper lobes 3, subcon-
nate and readily separating, about 10 mm long,
slightly spatulate at the tip, the lateral 2 bear-
ing each a gland along the line of connation
with the adjacent lobes, these two glands being
visible from the outside in a characteristic
manner (hence the specific name); stamens
(@ flowers) numerous, 20 or more; ovary ( 2
flower) finely grayish-tomentellous, about 2.5
mim long, on a gynophore deeply articulate, ca.
10 mm long, the style about 10 mm long, in-
crassate at the base; stigmas very short, ap-
parently cleft and elobulate.

Type: J. B. Edwards 581, Honduras, Coma-
guaya, in semiarid notaries. at 1,800 feet,
locally called “ditamo real,’’ Repenany 1933
(AA).

Distributed as P. macradenius Donn. Smith,
an altogether different species. It keys near
P. oerstedit Kl. & Garcke and P. aphyllus Boiss.,
but it does not agree in the slightest with the
latter, as interpreted by Millspaugh’ and il-
lnsimnned by Botteri 968 (GH). Pedilanthus
oerstedit is published with an inadequate de-
scription, there being a possible question

10 Op. cit. 367.

VOL. 33, NO. 1

whether its status is better than that of a
nomen nudum. Its classic locality is not far
from that of P. personatus but it may not be
the same species if, as it is affirmed" by Boissier
and by Millspaugh, it is closely related with P.
aphyllus, The specimen of P. oerstedit is now
inaccessible.
Euphorbia L.
Euphorbia crispata Hornem. Hort. Bot. Hafn.
Suppl. 58. 1819; Link, Enum. Pl. Hort.
Berol. Edit. Alt. 2: SMS 22%

Euphorbia undulata Bernh. ex Hornem.
Hort. Bot. Hafn. 2: 507.’ 181s Waller
(Schlecht.) Enum. Pl. Hort. Berol. Suppl. 28.
1813, nomen nudum. Non E. undulata M. a B.
Fl. Taur.-Caue. 1: 371. 1808.

Euphorbia pubescens Desf. Fl. Atl. 1: 386.
1798 (excl. syn. Vahlit); Gussone, Syn. FI. Sic.
1: 541. 1842, and 2: 828. 1848; Reich. Ic. Fl.
Germ. 5: pl. 188, fig. 4769. 1841; Boiss. in
DC. Prodr. 15?: 134. 1862; Batt. & Trab. FI.
Algér. 795. 1890 (excl. var.) ; Lojacono-Pojero,
Fl. Sic. 2?: 333. 1904; Jahand. & Maire, Cat.
Pl. Maroc 2: 464. 1932 (saltem p. p.). Non £.
pubescens Vahl, Symb. Bot. 2: 55. 1791.

With Jacquin,!* Gussone, and Lojacono-Po-
jero I believe that Desfontaines and the au-
thors who have followed him erred in their
interpretation of Vahl’s E. pubescens, the
whole trend of the evidence standing against
Desfontaines’s and Boissier’s decisions. The
correct binomial for the plant called by these
authors E. pubescens is E. crispata Hornem.,
so far as I may learn from the literature. It is
strange that Vahl’s species, not to mention mis-
applications, should have accumulated not less
than four probable synonyms, as follows: (1)
E. vahlia Jacq. Eel. 1: 99. in not. 1813; (2)
E. vahliana Guss. Syn. Fl. Sic. 2: 829. in not.
1843; (3) HE. bonae Mutel, Fl. Frang. 3: 151.
(in not.) 1836; (4) EH. cossoniana Boiss., in DC.
Prodr. 152: 135. 1862; Vahl, Mutel, and Bois-
sier practically giving the same descriptions
and suggesting the same comparisons with E,
helroscopia L.

Martinez s. n., Chapultepec, near Mexico
City, July, 1940, belongs to H. crispata Hor-
nem. (EH. pubescens auct., non Vahl), and is ap-
parently the first record of this Mediterranean
plant as an escape in American floras.

11 DC. Prodr. 152: 6. 1862.
122 Hel. 1: 98-99. pl. 66. 1813.

JAN. 15; 1943

DRECHSLER: OOMYCETES ASSOCIATED WITH ROOT ROT 21

BOTAN Y.—Antagonism and parasitism among some oomycetes associated with root

rot.

Among the many species of Pythium that
may be isolated, especially in wet seasons,
from softened, discolored, or decaying por-
tions of the roots, stems, or basal leaves of
herbaceous cultivated plants, some prove
ineffective, under ordinary circumstances,
for bringing about the root rot, stem rot, or
erown rot with which they were found as-
sociated. When these relatively innocuous
fungi are not attended by more strongly
pathogenic forms, their occurrence in dis-
eased plants is usually held to derive from
some limited capacity for parasitism where-
by they are enabled to attack phanerogamic
hosts that have become much weakened, or
in part moribund, as the result of unfavor-
able external conditions. On the other hand,
when, as very often comes to pass, an in-
nocuous species is found accompanied by
a demonstrably pathogenic form—or, per-
haps, even by two or three such forms—
there is reason to presume usually that it
entered the plant as a secondary invader,
and then propagated itself saprophytically
by drawing nourishment from tissues al-
ready killed by an earlier invader. However,
a more complicated system of biotic rela-
tionships would seem to obtain in many
cases of root rot where any one of the three
echinulate species I described under the
names P. oligandrum, P. acanthicum, and
P. pertplocum (9) is present as secondary
invader, since on transparent agar media
these species freely display destructive para-
sitism on many root-rotting forms con-
generic with them.

When, for example, Pythium ultimum
Trow and P. oligandrum both grow out from
a piece of decaying pea (Pisum sativum L.)
root into a Petri plate of maizemeal-agar
culture medium—as, indeed, has often hap-
pened in subjecting diseased pea roots from
Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, and New
York, to procedure suitable for isolation of
oomycetes—the former is attacked by the
latter in spectacular manner. The same
parasitic development can be brought to

1 Received July 16, 1942.

CHARLES DRECHSLER, Bureau of Plant Industry.

light conveniently by planting the two fungi
some distance apart on a maizemeal-agar
plate. Along the line where the two growing
mycelia meet, the advance of P. ultemum
is abruptly halted and its hyphae become
enveloped in innumerable places by in-
tricately ramifying branches of P. oli-
gandrum (Fig. 1). Soon these branches pene-
trate into the enveloped hyphae and extend
prolongations longitudinally within them to
assimilate the degenerating protoplasmic
contents. Here and there the internal fila-
ments send out ramifications that attack
other hyphae of P. ultsmum. Conidia and
young oogonia of P. ultimum are also at-
tacked, though apparently with less readi-
ness than young vegetative hyphae. Often
the destruction is so rapid and thorough-
going that in only scattered portions of the
ultimum mycelium is sexual reproduction
permitted to reach a stage where the thick
oospore wall affords reliable protection.
Pythium debaryanum Hesse and P. trregu-
lare Buism. (3), which occur as casual agents
of root rot and damping-off almost as fre-
quently as P. ultimum, have likewise been
observed undergoing violent attack by P.
oligandrum, not only in dual cultures pre-
pared purposely for such observation, tak-
ing place in the transparent medium merely
continues the destruction, but also in iso-
lation plate cultures where manifestly the
destruction spontaneously begun in such
natural substrata as tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum Mill.) roots, pansy (Viola tricolor
L.) roots, sugar-beet (Beta vulgaris L.)
seedlings, and peach (Prunus persica Sieb.
& Zuce.) seedlings. P. mammillatum Meurs
(13), often found in discolored rootlets of
field tomatoes in Maryland and Virginia,
is attacked by P. oligandrum in dual cul-
tures no less severely than the three familiar
damping-off species with which it belongs
taxonomically as a member of an inti-
mately interrelated series. In the same
series must be included also an apparently
undescribed species found occurring abun-
dantly during May, 1939, on pansies seri-
ously affected with root rot in the District

Da pe JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of Columbia; the fertilization of its large
oogonia, which often measured 28 to 33y in
diameter, by an antheridium consisting fre-
quently of an adjacent hyphal segment,
relating it more particularly to P. ultimum.
This species, too, is very destructively para-
sitized by P. oligandrum in dual cultures,
penetration of its hyphae being accom-
plished after they have been closely en-
veloped by ramifications of the spiny form
(Fig. 2, A). Again, when P. splendens
Braun, a species less intimately related to
those commonly causing damping-off, is
grown in dual culture with P. oligandrum,
it suffers elaborate envelopment of its
hyphae, which then are permeated longi-
tudinally by narrow filaments of the spiny
form and expropriated of their degenerating
contents (Fig. 2, B). P. salpingophorum
Drechsl. (9) similarly is attacked with spec-
tacular effect, while P. butlert Subr., P.
graminicolum Subr., and P. arrhenomanes
Drechsl., as also the three interrelated pro-
liferous species I described under the names
P. helicoides, P. oedochilum, and P. palin-
genes (9) suffer less severely in encounters
with P. oligandrum.

As Pythium acanthicum and P. peri-
plocum have only occasionally been ob-
tained from softened or discolored roots,
isolation plate cultures have afforded little
opportunity for observing the behavior of
these echinulate species toward the con-
generic forms known to cause root troubles.
However, when the two species are grown
in dual cultures with various congeners
pathogenic to phanerogamic plants, para-
sitic activity similar to that of P. okgandrum
comes to light: P. ultimum, P. debaryanum,
P. irregulare, P. mammillatum, P. splendens,
P. salpingophorum, and the ulttmum-like
form found prevalent in pansy roots, being
attacked in a most destructive manner,
whereas, in general, P. buileri, P. gramini-
colum, P. arrhenomanes, P. helicoides, P.
oedochilum, and P. palingenes incur less
ruinous injury. That aquatic congeners are
subject to similar adverse action is evident
from the readiness with which, in dual cul-
tures, delicate ramifications of P. acanthi-
cum (Fig. 2, C, a; D, a) as well as of P. peri-
plocum (Fig. 2, EK, a) invest the hyphae of

VOL. 33, NO. Il

P. marsipium (Fig. 2,-C, b; D, b; E, b)j4
species I recently described (12) from de-
caying leaves of the white waterlily, Nym-
phaea tuberosa Paine.

The three species of Pythium thus given
to attacking other members of the genus
are distinguished, even when growing alone,
by a delicate mycelial habit achieved
through unusually abundant development
of slender branches that arise laterally from
axial filaments of moderate width. No such
copious production of slender branches suit-
able for envelopment of alien hyphae occurs
in the vegetative growth of P. megalacan-
thum de Bary sensu Buisman (3), a form
associated with flax (Linum usitatissimum
L.) scorch in The Netherlands, or of the two
closely related American species, similarly
provided with large oogonia, which I de-
scribed (9) as P. mastophorum and P. poly-
mastum. The separateness of the two spiny
series, indicated by marked differences both
in make-up of sexual apparatus and in
mycelial texture, is further evidenced by
ready parasitism of the three delicate
species on all three of the coarse species.
The parasitism of P. acanthicum on P.
mastophorum, initiated by extensive en-
wrapment of mastophorum filaments (Fig.
2, F), has in some instances led to more
severe injury than usually eventuates in
any of the other eight combinations of host
and parasite that are possible between the
two series. Since the oogonia of the coarse
forms are often invaded even during rela-
tively late stages in their growth, their
capacious spiny envelopes often come to
surround from three to six alien echinulate
oogonia, each usually containing a mature
oospore of normal structure.

Pythium anandrum, which I originally de-
scribed from decaying underground buds of
rhubarb (Rheum rhaponticum L.) in Mary-
land (9), and which more recently was also
found associated with crown rot of rhubarb

in California (14), has its oogonia orna-

mented with tapering protuberances that
in general shape resemble the oogonial
spines of P. oligandrum, but its mycelium
lacks any extensive development of fine
ramifications, being rather similar in coarse-
ness and manner of branching to the myce-

JAN. 15, 1943 DRECHSLER: OOMYCETES ASSOCIATED WITH ROOT ROT 23

lium of P. debaryanum or of P. irregulare. drum, though for the most part not with
As might be expected, in view of such simi- much severity. However, P. acanthicum and
larity, the species is attacked by P. oligan- PP. periplocum ordinarily show more pro-

Fig. 1.—Pythium oligandrum attacking P. ultimum in dual culture on maizemeal agar;
approximately 400. Photomicrograph taken by Marguerite S. Wilcox.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

nounced aggressiveness in their attack on
P. anandrum, many of the hyphae envel-
oped by them being subsequently invaded
and expropriated of contents. Pythiogeton
autossytum, a pythiaceous fungus that I
isolated and described (10) from softened
leaf-sheaths of the common cat-tail, Typha
latifolia L., also is attacked only feebly by
P. oligandrum, yet suffers appreciable injury
when grown in dual culture with either P.
acanthicum or P. periplocum. Wherever a
filament of P. periplocum (Fig. 2, G, a;
H, a) encounters one of P. autossytum (Fig.
2, G, b; H, b) it envelops the latter with
branches whose somewhat lobate, rounded
tips evidently become affixed by means of an
adhesive secretion, after the manner of ap-
pressoria.

While Pythium oligandrum thus is inimi-
cal in varying degree to many pythiaceous
fungi, it is itself affected unfavorably by a
number of oomycetes found associated with
root rot. When grown in dual culture with
the congeneric P. complens Fischer [= P.
gracile Schenk sensu de Bary (1, 2), P.
gracile (de Bary) sensu Ward (16), P. toru-
losum Coker & Patterson (4)], which occurs
widely in the decaying roots of numerous
phanerogamic plants, including, for example,
pansies, peas, sugar beets, beans (Phaseolus
vulgaris L.), spinach (Spinacia oleracea
Mill.), and sugar cane (Saccharum offici-
narum L.), a few of its hyphae are attacked
and invaded for short distances (Fig. 3, A).
It suffers much more severe injury from
Plectospira myriandra Drechsl., a saproleg-
niaceous fungus originally isolated from
tomato rootlets (7). A growing mycelium of
P. oligandrum is abruptly halted in its ad-
vance wherever it encounters a growing
mycelium of P. myriandra. Everywhere in
the zone of encounter the hyphae of P. oli-
gandrum are elaborately enveloped by rami-
fications put forth from axial filaments of
P. myriandra (Fig. 3, B). An increased
opaqueness of the enveloped hyphae soon
announces the onset of progressive disor-
ganization within them. Some of the affected
hyphal parts are penetrated and invaded
lengthwise, with consequent disappearance
of their degenerating protoplasmic ma-
terials; though, on the whole, utilization of

VOL. 33, NO. 1

such materials would seem hardly com-
mensurate with the expenditure entailed in
enwrapping the Pythiwm filaments.

Injury from encounter with Plectospira
myriandra is incurred likewise by Pythium
pertplocum and Pythium acanthicum, and in
varying measure also by many other con-
generic species less intimately related to
Pythium oligandrum, including those most
frequently found responsible for damping-
off, root rot, stem rot, and fruit rot. More-
over, destructive behavior toward pythia-
ceous fungi is not limited to P. myriandra,
but is displayed with equally telling effect
by three root-rotting strains of Aphano-
myces obtained from infected roots,—two
of the strains in question having been iso-
lated from discolored roots of flax and
spinach, respectively (11), several years
before the third was isolated from softened
cortex of a pansy root dug up in Arlington,
Va., on May 4, 1939. Judging from the ori-
gin and positional relationships of their
antheridial branches, the flax and spinach
strains appear certainly referable to A.
cladogamus, a species I based originally on
cultures obtained from tomate rootlets (8);
and the pansy strain, despite some aber-
rance, would seem better referable to this
species than to any other hitherto described.
At all events the three strains, when grown
in dual culture with numerous species of
Pythium, show decided parallelism in their
strongly antagonistic behavior. Thus, when
the spinach strain encounters the pythia-
ceous form from decaying waterlily leaves,
which, owing to its production of very large
globose intramatrical reproductive bodies,
appears identical with the form that Diss-
mann (6) assimilated to P. undulatum Pet.,
it puts forth elaborate ramifications to en-
velop and destroy the alien hyphae (Fig. 3,
C) much after the same manner in which
the pansy strain puts forth elaborate rami-
fications to envelop and destroy hyphae of
P. dissotocum Drechsl. (Fig. 3, D), a species
causing important damage to sugar cane
under unfavorable conditions (15).

Less aggressive antagonism is usually dis-
played by Aphanomyces cochlioides Drechsl.,
a water mold often causing damping-off and
root rot of sugar beets in wet fields (8).

JAN. 15, 1943 DRECHSLER: OOMYCETES ASSOCIATED WITH ROOT ROT

Fig. 2.—Attack of three echinulate species of Pythium on several pythiaceous fungi
in dual cultures; all parts drawn to a uniform magnification with the aid of a camera
lucida; X1000. A, Pythium oligandrum, a, enveloping a filament of an ultimum-like
congeneric species from pansy roots, b. B, P. oligandrum, a, enveloping and invading a
filament of Pythium splendens, b. C, D, Pera acanthicum, a, enveloping Pythium
marsipium, b. “E, Pythium periplocum, a, enveloping a filament of P. marsipium, b.
F, Pythium acanthicum, a, enveloping a ‘filament of Pythium mastophorum, b. G, H,
Se, periplocum, a, enveloping Pythiogeton autossytum, b.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 1

Seances tt
Mh

C. Drechsler dei.

Fig. 3.—Harmful relationships between various oomycetes; all parts drawn to a
uniform magnification with the aid of a camera lucida; 1000. A, Pythiwm complens, a,
attacking and invading Pythium oligandrum, b. B, Plectospira myriandra, a, attacking
P. oligandrum, b. C, Spinach strain of Aphanomyces cladogamus, a, attacking a filament,

b, of Pythium undulatum sensu Dissmann. D, Pansy strain of A. cladogamus, a, attack-
ing Pythiwm dissotocum, b.

JAN. 15, 1948

When this saprolegniaceous parasite en-
counters Pythium debaryanum or P. mam-
millatum in dual culture, it abruptly halts
the advance of the alien mycelium and
causes protoplasmic degeneration in termi-
nal portions of alien hyphae along the zone
of encounter; the injury evidently coming
about, for the most part, from mere pro-
pinquity, since often no special involve-
ment of alien hyphae can be detected.
Growing in opposition to P. myriotylum
Drechsl., which frequently is responsible for
field decay of watermelon fruits in Florida,
A. cochlioides has sometimes been observed
extending rangy hyphae to wind loosely
about alien filaments here and there, and
occasionally has, in addition, been seen put-
ting forth short branches to promote proto-
plasmic degeneration in these filaments, or
even to invade them internally on a small
scale.

From their pathogenic behavior under
experimental conditions there is reason to
believe that both Aphanomyces cochlioides
and A. cladogamus operate mainly as direct
parasites on the phanerogamic plants in
which they occur habitually. The direct
parasitism of Pythiwm periplocum and P.
acanthicum in causing blossom-end rot of
watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.)
fruits could not readily be questioned even
if experimental evidence of their infective
capabilities were lacking, for when occur-
ring in specimens of this rot the two echinu-
late species are usually unaccompanied by
other likely agents of decay. In the eco-
logical assemblage of oomycetes here under
consideration, a capacity for bringing about
disease in higher plants can manifestly co-
exist with a capacity for attacking and in-
juring other members of the assemblage.
However, as the several saprolegniaceous
fungi hitherto found attacking higher plants
all have smooth oogonia, it appears prob-
able that the spiny A. exoparasiticus, de-
scribed by Couch (5) as being parasitic on
various phycomycetes, may not be patho-
genic to any species of phanerogams.

The parasitic and antagonistic relation-
ships between oomycetes associated with
root rot come into strongest expression
where both of the fungi concerned are in a

DRECHSLER: OGMYCETES ASSOCIATED WITH ROOT ROT He

high state of vegetative vigor. In dual cul-
tures that have been started by planting
the two species some distance apart hyphal
envelopment and hyphal degeneration, if
present, is always most pronounced in the
narrow zone where the growing mycelia en-
counter each other, that is, in the zone
where, without exception, young vigorous
hyphae of the aggressor come upon equally
young hyphae of the opposing form. Dual
cultures incubated at a temperature of
28°C., which is fairly close to the optimum
temperature for mycelial growth in many
species of Pythiwm, usually show more ex-
tensive hyphal envelopment than similar
cultures incubated at 18°C. Hyphal envelop-
ment is usually more abundant when rather
soft maizemeal agar, containing 15 grams of
agar-agar to the liter, is employed than
when the medium used contains 25 grams
of agar-agar to the liter. As Pythium oligan-
drum, P. acanthicum, and P. periplocum
initiate and conclude sexual reproduction
earlier than most congeneric forms, and as
they usually exhaust their mycelia almost
completely in producing sexual apparatus,
areas in dual cultures first occupied by these
species may later be invaded by other
species of Pythiwm without much hindrance
except, perhaps, from accumulated staling
products.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Bary, A. pE. Untersuchungen tiber die
Peronosporeen und Saprolegnieen und
die. Grundlagen eines natiirlichen Sys-
tems der Pilze. Abh. Senckenb. Naturf.
Ges. 12: 225-370. 1881.

. Zur Kenntnis der Peronosporeen.
Bot. Zeit. 39: 521-530, 537-544, 553-
563, 569-578, 585-595, 601-609, 617-
625. Sse

(3) Buisman, C. J. Root rots caused by phy-
comycetes. Meded. Phytopath. Lab.
‘Willie Commelin Scholten” Baarn 11:
1-51. 1927.

(4) Coxrer, W.C., and P. M. Patrerson. A
new species of Pythium. Journ. Elisha
Mitchell Sci. Soc. 42: 247-250. 1927.

(5) Coucu, J. N. Notes on the genus Aph-
anomyces with a description of a new
semiparasitic species. Journ. Elisha
Mitchell Sci. Soc. 41: 213-227. 1926.

(6) DissmMann, E. Vergleichende Studien zur
Biologie und Systematik zweter Pythium-

(2)

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Arten. Arch. Protistenk. 60: 142-192.

1927.

(7) DrecustER, C. Two water molds causing
tomato rootlet injury. Journ. Agr. Res.

34: 287-296. 1927.

. The beet water mold and several re-

lated root parasites. Journ. Agr. Res.

38: 309-861. 1929.

. Some new species of Pythium.

Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 20: 398-
418. 19380.

-. A species of Pythiogeton isolated
from decaying leaf-sheaths of the common
cat-tail. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci.
22: 421-449. 1932.

. Occurrence of a species of Aph-
anomyces on roots of spinach and flax.
Phytopathology 25: 14-15. 1935.

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

VOL. 33, NO. 1

. Three species of Pythium with
proliferous sporangia. Phytopathology
31: 478-507. 1941.

(13) Merurs, A. Wortelrot veroorzaakt door
schimmels uit de geslacten Pythium
Pringshem en Aphanomyces de Bary,
95 pp. Baarn, 1928.

(14) MippuEeTon, J. T. Crown rot of rhubarb
caused by Pythium spp. Phytopathol-
ogy 31: 863. 1941.

(15) Stevenson, J. A.,and R. D. Ranps. An
annotated list of the fungi and bacteria
associated with sugarcane and its prod-
ucts. Hawaiian Planters’ Rec. 42:
247-313. 1938.

(16) Warp, H. M. Observations on the genus
Pythium (Pringsh.). Quart. Journ.
Micr. Soe. (n. ser.) 23: 485-515. 1883.

(12)

ZOOLOGY.—A _ redescription of Typhlonema salomonis Kreis (Nematoda).
JoHN T. LuckEr, Bureau of Animal Industry.

Male and female specimens of a nema-
tode from the digestive tract of skinks of the
genus Mabuya, collected in 1939 in Belgian
Congo by Arthur Loveridge, of the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univer-
sity, are believed by the writer to represent
Typhlonema salomonis Kreis, 1938. This
genotype was based on female characters,
and partly because of this the systematic
position of the genus T'yphlonema has been
regarded as uncertain.

The available specimens are not from the
type host or locality of Kreis’s species. The
writer’s identification of them, therefore, is
based entirely on morphological grounds.
It should be emphasized, however, that
there are certain discrepancies between the
morphology of the females, as determined
by the writer, and the characteristics
ascribed to JT. salomonis by Kreis.2 The
African specimens have an anus, weakly de-
veloped, but distinct, equal lips and the
typical ascaridoid complement of cephalic
papillae. In view of well-established facts
concerning the structure of ascaridin nema-
todes generally, it seems very likely, how-
ever, that a reexamination of Kreis’s speci-
mens, if undertaken, will show that they

1 Received September 29, 1942.

2 Kreis, Hans A., Bettrdge zur Kenntnis para-
sitischer Nematoden. VIII. Neue _ parasitische
Nematoden aus dem Naturhistorischen Museum

Basel. Zentralbl. Bakteriol., 1 Abt. Orig., 142
(5-6): 329-352. 1938.

also have an anus and the usual number, as
well as a normal distribution, of cephalic
papillae. Hence, because the available fe-
males agree with Kreis’s description in the
important points of vulva position and
structure of eggs, both of which are un-
usual, as well as in many other details, the
writer has no hesitancy in regarding them
as belonging to the genus T'yphlonema. Aiso,
there appears to be no acceptable evidence
and little chance that the specimens from
Mabuya differ specifically from Kreis’s spec-
imens from Gecko. Therefore, there is here
presented, as a recharacterization of T.
salomonis, the following description of the
female and male specimens from Africa in
an effort to delineate more satisfactorily
the characteristics and affinities of Typh-
lonema. |

Typhlonema salomonis Kreis, 1938

Description.—Lips flat, weakly developed;
each probably corresponding to apical portion
only of typical ascaridoid lip. Cephalic papillae
of internal circle very prominent; amphids and
the four double papillae of external circle well
developed; ventrolaterals present, but small
and rather weakly developed (Figs. 1, 3). Oral
opening roughly triangular; stoma small, ap-
parently consisting of sclerotized protorhab-
dions partly surrounded by esophageal tissue
(Fig. 2). Esophagus with short, histologically
differentiated vestibule (Figs. 2, 5); corpus

ayes

mee
PEAT
—

oer
: od u

KNGe
Wane) MY

‘st

ae
=
COC)

———=———

Figs. 1-18.—Typhlonema salomonis: 1, Head (female), en face aspect. 2, Anterior extremity (fe-
male), optical section through protorhabdions and vestibule, slightly oblique dorsal aspect. 3,
Cephalic region (female), showing papillae of dorsal lip, superficial dorsal aspect. 4, Egg from anterior
portion of uterus, embryonated but lacking protein coat, optical section. 5, Female, esophageal
region, lateral aspect. 6, Male, caudal region, lateral aspect. 7, Female, tip of tail, lateral aspect.
8, Spicule (left), lateral aspect. 9, Male, lateral aspect. 10, Female, lateral aspect. 11, Cross section
(female) slightly anterior to anus, showing musculature. 12, Egg from posterior portion of uterus, in
cleavage stage, optical section. 13, Gubernaculum, lateral aspect. 14, Male, caudal region, ventral
aspect. 15, Portion of cross section (female), showing muscle cells. 16, Egg from ovijector, em-
bryonated and with fully developed protein coat, optical section. 17, Female, anal region, lateral

aspect. 18, Male, optical section through cloacal region, showing appearance of muscles slightly
beneath ventral surface.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

highly muscular, proportionately long, slender,
of almost uniform diameter except for slight
swelling in postcorpal region; isthmus short,
but definite, of lesser diameter than post-
corpus; bulb ovoid, well developed, containing
well developed valvular apparatus (Fig. 5).
Deiriids apparently absent. Excretory pore at

level between bulb and postcorpus of esopha-.

gus; terminal excretory duct moderately long
(Fig. 5). Lateral alae, narrow, distally bifid, ex-
tending from near cephalic region to near clo-
acal region in male; absent in female. Muscula-
ture, polymyarian-platymyarian in anterior
part of body and polymyarian-coelomyarian in
midbody (Figs. 11, 15). Body laterally com-
pressed in some fixed specimens (Fig. 11), ex-
cept in esophageal region, but nearly cylindrical
in others.

Female—Maximum length in available spec-
imens about 16.85 mm; length in young, but
gravid specimens ranging down to about 8.5
mm. Body of more or less uniform diameter ex-
cept for gradual tapering in anterior one-tenth
to cephalic extremity (diameter about 40-
50) and sudden tapering posteriorly to tip of
tail. Maximum dorsoventral width about 0.59
mm in large specimens and about 0.30 mm in
smallest specimens. Anus (Figs. 10, 17) un-
usually far removed from posterior extremity.
Tail long, equivalent to about one-sixth to
one-fifth of body length: diameter throughout
most of its length almost as great as that of
midbody; tapering in its extreme posterior por-
tion only and terminating in a small acutely
pointed process (Figs. 7, 10). Vulva prominent,
located alongside bulb, isthmus, or postcorpus
of esophagus, behind excretory pore (Figs. 5,
10). Reproductive system opisthodelphic; in
young specimens the moderately long vagina
passes posteriorly from the vulva to a long
ovijector which unites with two slender parallel
uteri which extend posteriorly into the tail re-
gion, sometimes nearly to posterior tip of body
where they unite with oviducts; oviducts re-
flexed anteriorly and somewhat coiled, leading
to ovaries which pass anteriad and parallel to
region just anterior to anus where their tips
are reflexed posteriorly (Fig. 10). In fully grown
specimens the uteri are somewhat distended
and coiled, particularly in caudal region, some-
times entwined about intestine and sometimes
also coiled anteriorly and extending almost to

VOL. 33, NO. 1

region of esophageal bulb so fundamental plan
of reproductive system is obscured. Ovovivip-
arous; uterine eggs of eccentric oval to spheri-
cal shape, provided with monopolar knob, and
of roseate hue, the coloration apparently lo-
calized in perivitellus space. Eggs in posterior
portions of uteri in various cleavage stages, of
variable size, tending to be distorted by pres-
sure, with moderately thick, dense shell pro-
vided with monopolar thumb-like projection
(Fig. 12); in middle portions of uteri some eggs
embryonated, frequently with shell thinner
than in less developed or mature eggs and also
tending to be larger than these eggs (Fig. 4);
in anterior portions of uteri, in oviduct and
vagina, the eggs are larvated, almost spherical
and are provided with well-developed rugose,
mammillated protein coat anchored in part to
true shell by monopolar thumblike process of
latter and forming around this process a
bluntly rounded knob (Fig. 16), the true shell
being thicker than in uncoated embryonated
eggs, apparently as result of compression. Fully
developed eggs are about 60y to 87y long, in-
cluding the monopolar knob, and about 50yu
to 60u wide.

Male.—Much shorter and comparatively
more robust than female; about 3.1 mm long by
about 0.24 mm in maximum dorsoventral
width; esophagus about 0.37 mm long. Repro-
ductive system simple (Fig. 9); testis reflexed
near middle of body. Tail subulate, terminating
in an extremely minute spike, curved sharply
ventrad and anteriad in available fixed speci-
mens; about 0.22 to 0.24 mm long. Cuticle in
region just anterior to cloaca thrown up into
prominent transverse folds not appearing to be
homologous with mamelons and not bearing
plectanes, appearing to be provided with close-
set longitudinal intrastrial ridges. Preanal
sucker absent, but circumcloacal elevation
present (Figs. 6, 9, 14); arrangement of muscu-
lature in pericloacal region as shown in figure
18; caudal alae absent. Caudal papillae con-
sisting of 16 pairs, including 5 preanal sub-
lateral pairs and 11 pairs distributed as follows:
4 subventral pairs in the circumcloacal or
adanal position, 3 of them on the circumcloacal
elevation and 1 lateral to it; 7 definitely post-
anal pairs, 4 of them subventral (first, third,
fifth and seventh pairs from the caudal tip) and
3 sublateral (second, fourth and sixth pairs

JAN. 15, 1943

from caudal tip; Fig. 6). The posteriormost
pair on the circumcloacal elevation is weakly
developed (Fig. 14). Five pairs of the postanals
are grouped near the caudal tip; the two sub-
lateral pairs in this group are smaller than the
three subventral pairs (Fig. 14). Gubernacu-
lum cuneiform, very prominent, robust,
strongly sclerotized, alate, about 0.143 mm
long; provided with a proximal pair of tri-
angular latero-ventrally directed wings; distal
tip usually protruding from cloacal opening and
rather sharply pointed (Figs. 6, 9, 13, 14).
Spicules two, elongate, very slender, about
0.130 mm long, lightly sclerotized, slightly ex-
panded proximally, with bluntly pointed alate
hyaline distal tip (Figs. 6, 8, 9).

Hosts.—Gecko vittatus Houtt. (type host);
Mabuya striata (Peters); Mabuya megalura
(Peters).

Location.—Stomach and intestine.

Distribution—Makira, Solomon Islands;
Molinga River, Idjwi Islands, Belgian Congo.

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. nos.
40695; 40698; 45308. (Specimens also in Mus-
eum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univ.)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY Bo

Remarks: Kreis? placed Typhlonema in the
Oxyuroidea and in the subfamily Oxyurinae.
Walton,’in a key to some oxyuroid genera from
reptiles, tentatively included the genus under
the Oxyuridae, remarking on the difficulty of
placing it systematically and stating that it
shows affinities to both Atractidae and Oxy-
uridae. On the basis of the foregoing descrip-
tion, it is the writer’s opinion that Typhlonema
belongs in the Ascaridoidea, as conceived by
Chitwood and Chitwood,‘ and in the family
Cosmocercidae. Although the musculature in
Typhlonema is polymyarian, whereas the fam-
ily Cosmocercidae is characterized by authors
as meromyarian, in other respects the genus
appears to be far more closely related to certain
cosmocercid genera than to any belonging in
the four other ascaridoid families recognized
by the Chitwoods.

3 Watton, A. C. Some oxyurids from a Gala-
pagos turtle. Proc. Helm. Soc. Washington 9(1):
1-17. 1942.

_4 Cuitwoop, B. G., and Cuitwoop, M. B., An
introduction to nematology, sect. 1, pt. 1, 53 pp.
1937.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

378TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 378th meeting of the Board of Managers
was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on
November 16, 1942. President Curtis called
the meeting to order at 8:01 p.m., with 17 per-
sons present, as follows: H. L. Curtis, F. D.
ROSSINI, R..J. SkEcER, J. E. Grar, F. H. H.
honunrs, Jt., F. G. BrickweppE, F. C.
Kracek, W. G. BromBacueEr, F. M. SETZLER,
H. L.-Hatuer, A. Wermore, F. B. SILsBes,
K. W. Pricz, L. W. Parr, H. G. Dorsey, and,
by invitation, G. A. Cooper and A. SEIDELL.

The minutes of the 377th meeting were read
and approved. :

President CurTIs announced the appoint-
ment of F. B. Sitsper (chairman), J. E.
Graf, and C. L. Garner to constitute a special
committee to consider recommendations for
increasing the income of the Academy.

For the committee to consider ways and
means of decreasing the expenses of the
Academy, Chairman BrickKweppE presented a
complete and detailed report embodying a
number of recommendations. In acting upon
this report, the Board authorized the appoint-
ment of a special committee to consider a

change in the number of issues of the JouRNAL
from 12 monthly to 6 bimonthly issues a year
without decreasing the total number of pages
or the amount of material published each year,
and also to consider a change in the kind of
printing of the JourNat from the present
typeset printing to a photographic offset
process. Suggestions regarding certain other
possible economies were referred to the 1943
Executive Committee.

For the committee to consider recommenda-
tions for increasing the income of the Academy,
Chairman SILSBEE presented a complete and
detailed report. As a result of the suggestions
made, the Board authorized the appointment
of a committee to contact the U. 8. Office of
Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs with
regard to the purchase by them of subscriptions
to the Academy’s JouRNAL for transmission to
the more important libraries in South America.

The Secretary reported the deaths of two
members.

Senior Editor SrrGrerR reported that the
December number of the JouRNAL might need
to be sharply curtailed to insure keeping within
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32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

beyond their 1942 allotment to prevent curtail-
ing the December number of the JOURNAL un-
duly. The extra allotment thus provided is the
amount of estimated balances unexpended
from other items in the 1942 budget of the
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The changes in the Standing Rules of the
Board, proposed at its previous meeting, were
approved, as follows:

(1) Under the present Rule 3, delete the present
version and substitute the following: ‘‘There
shall be four standing committees, as follows:
Executive Committee, Committee on Meetings,
Committee on Membership, and Committee on
Monographs. Two members of the Board shall be
appointed to serve on the Executive Committee.
The Committee on Membership shall include at
least three persons reappointed from the preced-
ing year. All appointments shall be for one year
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first meeting of the Board following the annual
meeting.”

(2) Under the present Rule 8, delete the second
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(3) Between the present Rules 6 and 7, insert
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JOURNAL Shall be appointed by the President for
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VOL. 33, NO. 1

The Board instructed the Custodian and
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Dr1eHu, to provide the Board with information
on the list of free subscriptions to the JoURNAL
and on the number and distribution of Govern-
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The meeting adjourned at 10:38 p.m.

314TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 314th meeting of the Academy was held
jointly with the Philosophical Society of Wash-
ington in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club at 8:15 p.m. on November 19, 1942, with
President Curtis presiding. W. G. Brom-
BACHER introduced the speaker. :

DEANE B. Jupp, physicist in the section on
photometry and colorimetry at the National
Bureau of Standards, delivered an address on
Color blindness and its relation to the detection of
camouflage. Dr. Jupp indicated the require-
ments for camouflaging ground positions cor-
rectly, showed which of these requirements can
be met in a practical way, and described under
what conditions color-blind observers can spot
certain camouflaged positions.

There were about 135 persons present.

FrepDERIcCK D. Rossini, Secretary.

@Obituary

ALFRED N. Finn, chief of the glass section,
National Bureau of Standards, died on Sep-
tember 21, 1942, at Lincoln, Nebr. He had
been in ill health for the past year and had
retired from active work.

Mr. Finn was born in Denver, Colo., in 1882.
He received his A.B. degree in 1906 and his
M.A. in 1909 from the University of Denver.
After several years as an instructor at the
University of Denver he was appointed in 1911
as an assistant chemist at the National Bureau
of Standards. His work dealt with cements,
paints and oils, boiler waters and boiler com-
pounds, protective coatings for metals, and
corrosion of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. In
1919 he accepted a position as chief chemist

and metallurgist for the Hydraulic Steel Co.,
Cleveland, Ohio, but later returned to the
Bureau as chief of the glass section.

Mr. Finn was an authority on glass tech-
nology and had charge of the Bureau’s produc-
tion of optical glass. He also directed the
making of a glass disk 70 inches in diameter
and 11 inches thick for use as a reflector in an
astronomical telescope now in use at the Ohio
Wesleyan University. He had been a member
of the following organizations: Washington
Academy of Sciences, American Chemical
Society, American Ceramic Society, American
Society for Testing Materials, Optical Society
of America, and American Institute of
Chemists.

P. H. Bates.

CONTENTS
Botany. ee Jerruginewm André, the §

Borany. —New names in Quercus and Osmanthus Rupee iP

ZooLtocy.—A Go of Typhlonema salomonis Kreis (Nomad
Joun’T, TUCKER. ss55 6. CY ae a ee ee ee

PROCEEDINGS: TM ADAM

Opiruary: At¥rep N; Finns; . 2 2) 2, BG

: _ This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

ORNITHOLOGY.—Two new birds from Morelos, Mexico.’
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology.

FRIEDMANN.)

While studying the Mexican birds be-
longing to the United States National Mu-
seum and to the Fish and Wildlife Service,
United States Department of the Interior,
I discovered two previously unrecognized
subspecies from Morelos and neighboring
states. For permission to describe these
forms I am under obligation to Dr. John
W. Aldrich, biologist of the Fish and Wild-
life Service. This study was aided by a grant
from the Faculty Research Fund by the
Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate
Studies in the University of Michigan.

Chamaethlypis poliocephala pontilis,
n. subsp.

Type —U.S.N.M. 186396; adult
Puente de Ixtla, Morelos; June 8, 1903; E. W.
Nelson and E. A. Goldman, original no. 10144.

Characters —Agrees in color with Chamae-

thlypis poltocephala poliocephala (Baird), from
Sinaloa to Nayarit, but wing and tail longer.
_ Agrees with C. poltocephala ralphi (Ridgway),
from Texas, in having whitish eyelids and pale
posterior underparts (i.e., lower breast and
belly mixed with pale yellow, white, and buffy;
flanks pale buffy brown), but throat and upper
breast deeper yellow; back more olive, less
grayish; wing and tail longer.

Differs from C. poliocephala palpebralis
Ridgway, from Caribbean Mexico, in having
whitish (instead of yellowish) eyelids; paler
coloration throughout; and larger size.

Chamaethlypis poliocephala caninucha (Ridg-
way) and C. poltocephala icterotis (Ridgway),
both from Central America, have black eyelids
and are smaller and much more brightly
colored.

1 Received October 29, 1942.

FER 22 1048

FEesruAry 15, 1943

male;.

Nox 2

PIERCE BRODKORB,
(Communicated by HERBERT

Measurements.—Four males: wing, 61.5-63
(62.3) ; tail, 66-68.5 (67.3). Three females: wing
55.5—-58.5 (57.0); tail, 59.5-61.5 (60.3).

In poliocephala the wing measures 57—58.5 in
the male (@? 52); tail, 60.5-62 (9 57.5). In
ralphi the wing is 57.5-60 ( 952.5-55); tail,
57.5-65 (2 56.5-58.5). In palpebralis the wing
is 54.5-60 ( 9 538-57); tail, 56.5-65 ( 9 55.5-62).

Range.—Pacific watershed of central Mexico,
in states of Morelos and Michoacan.

Material examined.—Morelos (Puente de
Ixtla, 1; Yautepec, 1); Michoacdn (Queréndaro,
1; Zamora, 1; Los Reyes, 2). Also adequate
series of the described forms, including the
types of poliocephala, ralphi, palpebralis, can-
nucha, and icterotis.

Sicalis luteola mexicana, n. subsp.

Type—wu.S.N.M. 186386; adult male;
Puente de Ixtla, Morelos; June 8, 1903; E. W.
Nelson and E. A. Goldman, original no. 10149.

Characters. —Differs from Sicalts luteola chry-
sops Sclater, of the Caribbean slope of Mexico,
in larger size; paler, more golden yellow (less
greenish yellow) crown, rump, and underparts;
dark streaks of crown narrower and not extend-
ing forward beyond eye.

Measurements.—Eleven males: wing, 68—72.5
(70.0); tail, 43-49 (45.8). Two females: wing,
66-70 (68.0); tail, 43.5-46 (44.8).

In chrysops 13 males measure as follows:
wing, 63-67 (65.8); tail, 41-44.5 (438.7). Three
females: wing, 60-65 (62.0); tail, 4148.5 (42.0).

Remarks.—The type of chrysops, for which
the locality is given simply as ‘‘Mexico merid.,”’
was received from the dealer Parzudaki. The
figure of the type (Ibis, 1872: pl. 2, fig. 1)
clearly indicates a dark bird. The measure-
ments of the type published by Sclater (Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, 1861: 376) and by Sharpe

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. 12: 384. 1888) are not
identical, yet both sets of measurements show
that the type was a small individual. I therefore
restrict the type locality of chrysops to Orizaba,
Veracruz, where the small, dark subspecies cur-
rently passing under the name is known to oc-
cur, and which town was a likely place of origin
for a collection in 1861.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

This species of finch was heretofore unknown
in literature from the Pacific side of Mexico.

Range.—Pacific watershed of central Mexico,
in states of Morelos and Puebla.

Material examined.—sS. l. mexicana: Morelos
(Puente de Ixtla, 12); Puebla (Atlixco, 2). S. l.
chrysops: Veracruz (Orizaba, 1); Chiapas
(Palenque, 15).

ENTOMOLOGY.—WNew genera and species of Neotropical bark beetles (Coleoptera:

Scolytidae.)!
tine.

_ Described here are two new genera of
Neotropical bark beetles, belonging to the
subfamily Ipinae, tribe Pityophthorini, one
of them containing two and the other three
previously undescribed species. One of the
genera is based upon material in the United
States National Museum and recognized as
new for a number of years, while the other
is from material only recently received from
Panama.

Gnatholeptus, n. gen.

Very similar to Pityophthorus Fichhoff in
habitus and in many structural details. Body
subcylindrieal, weakly to moderately shining;
frons flattened, finely, closely punctured with
fine hairs in the female; eye large, emarginate,
facets coarse; antenna similar to that of Pity-
ophthorus, with club distinctly longer than 5-
segmented funicle, ovate, with first two sutures
strongly but incompletely septate; mandible
long, slender, curved, extending well in front of
rest of mouthparts, biting surface gougelike,
comprising one-fourth or less of inner margin;
pronotum margined at base, with anterior area
concentrically asperate, summit rather low,
with weak transverse impression; elytral de-
clivity sloping, weakly to moderately sulcate at
each side, third interspace with or without
granules, vestiture moderate.

Genotype: Gnatholeptus mandibularis, n. sp.

This genus, although superficially similar to
Pityophthorus and, indeed, much like certain
of the species groups of that genus in many de-
tails such as antennal structure, can immedi-
ately be separated by the extraordinary de-
velopment of the mandibles. In all known spe-

1 Received September 10, 1942.

M. W. Buackman, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran-
(Communicated by C. F. W. MuUESEBECK.)

cies of Pityophthorus, as well as in most of the
Scolytidae, the mandibles are short and stout,
with the biting or chewing surface comprising
nearly all the inner margin. In Gnatholeptus,
however, the mandibles are long, curved, and
comparatively slender. As their bases are
widely separated and as only the distal fourth
to sixth meet to form the biting surface, they
form a sort of arch through which the ventral
mouthparts may be seen.

It would be interesting to know the feeding
habits and mode of life of Gnatholeptus to see
what advantage is gained by such unusual
mandibles. All the specimens of this genus,
however, were taken at light, and nothing is
known of their food or habits.

Gnatholeptus mandibularis, n. sp.

Female—Light reddish brown; 1.77 mm
long, 3.10 times as long as wide.

Frons convex above, finely, sparsely punc-
tured, shining, flattened between eyes below,
feebly concave in median area, finely, densely
punctured, with a dense brush of fine, yellow,
plushlike pubescence of moderate length. Hye
rather large, half divided by a deep, V-shaped
emargination, facets rather coarse. Antenna
similar to that of Pztyophthorus, with club 1.44
times as long as 5-segmented funicle, 1.30 times
as long as wide, widest through third segment;
sutures arcuate, the first two strongly but in-
completely septate. Mandible long, slender,
with biting surface confined to only the distal
fourth of the inner margin.

Pronotum 1.18 times as long as wide, widest
on posterior half; posterior border margined,
feebly arcuate, posterior angles scarcely
rounded; sides straight and subparallel on pos-
terior half, broadly rounded in front, anterior

Fes. 15, 1943

margin with numerous low, very wide serra-
tions; summit near middle, not high; anterior
area with very broad, low asperities in nearly
regular concentric rows; posterior area feebly,
broadly impressed behind summit, finely,
rather shallowly punctured, with interstices
feebly shining, distinctly reticulate; median
line narrow, weakly elevated, impunctate; ves-
titure of fine hairs on anterior area, disk sub-
glabrous.

Elytra equal to pronotum in width and 1.64
times as long, 1.94 times as long as wide; sides
nearly straight and subparallel on anterior
three-fourths, rather broadly rounded at pos-
terior angles, with extreme apex subacuminate
owing to elevation of sutures; surface mod-
erately shining; punctures moderately large,
deep, in slightly irregular, rather crowded strial
rows, only the first impressed; interspaces
narrow, rugulose, nearly impunctate except at
base and near declivity; disk and sides nearly
glabrous. Declivity sloping, bisulcate; suture
elevated throughout, more strongly at apex,
with fine semierect hairs; first and second
striae and intervening second interspace form-
ing rather narrow, moderately deep sulcus,
punctures much smaller than on disk, third in-
terspace elevated, forming summit of lateral
callosity, with a row of three small, rather
pointed tubercles; interspaces finely punctured
and with fine erect hairs.

Male unknown.

Type locality—Barro Colorado Island, Pan-
ama.

Host.—Unknown.

Type material—Holotype and 13 paratypes,
U.S.N.M. no. 56418.

The type series was collected at light, June
20, 1941, by James Zetek.

Gnatholeptus panamensis, n. sp.

Rather light reddish brown (somewhat im-
mature); 1.56 mm long, nearly exactly 3.0
times as long as wide; similar to mandvbularis,
n. sp., but with mandibles longer and each
bearing a tuft of hairs, and elytral declivity
without granules in third interspace.

Head retracted, concealing frons; epistomal
margin in its median sixth extended to form a
projection nearly three times as long as its
basal width. Eye coarsely faceted, large, nearly
half divided by a V-shaped emargination. An-
tenna similar in general to that of mandibularis.

BLACKMAN: NEW NEOTROPICAL BARK BEETLES 39

Mandible even longer and more slender than
in mandibularis, its shaft in middle third bear-
ing a tuft of very fine, stiff, yellow hairs, arising
from its dorsal surface and extending distad;
biting surface confined to distal sixth of its
inner margin.

Pronotum 1.19 times as long as wide, widest
near base; posterior border margined, feebly
arcuate, posterior angles scarcely rounded;
sides very feebly arcuate, broadly rounded in
front, anterior margin with many very low,
broad serrations (more numerous and less de-
veloped than in mandibularis); anterior area
with concentric rows of very low, broad asperi-
ties, fused to form nearly entirely regular,
concentric ridges; summit rather low, at
middle; posterior area feebly, transversely im-
pressed behind summit; surface feebly shining,
faintly reticulate; punctures fine, shallow; me-
dian line narrow, scarcely elevated, impunc-
tate; disk subglabrous, anterior area with fine,
short hairs.

Elytra equal to pronotum in width and 1.65
times as long, 1.91 times as long as wide; sides
subparallel on anterior two-thirds, narrowly
rounded, not acuminate behind; surface rather
weakly shining; punctures deep, moderate in
size, in nearly entirely regular rows, only the
first impressed; interspaces moderate, slightly
wider than in mandibularis, finely rugulose,
nearly impunctate on central disk, with a few
very fine, short hairs. Declivity more sloping
than in mandibularis; suture rather wide, about
equally elevated throughout, with a few fine,
erect hairs; first stria strongly impressed, punc-
tures obsolete; second stria not impressed, the
narrow sulcus formed largely by impression of
first stria; third interspace without granules
and not so strongly elevated as in mandibu-
laris;. interspaces with a few fine punctures
bearing fine, semierect hairs.

The form described is believed to be a fe-
male. The other sex is unknown.

Type localityx—Barro Colorado Island, Pan-
ama.

Host.—Unknown.

Type material—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no.
56419. The holotype was taken at light, June,

1941, by James Zetek.

Tachyderes, n. gen.

Body cylindrical with surface more or less
shining; frons convex above, transversely im-

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

pressed between eyes; antenna with 5-seg-
mented funicle, club notably longer, oval, com-
pressed, with three arcuate sutures indicated
by setal rows, none of them septate; eye of
moderate size, inner line emarginate, facets
fine to coarse; pronotum little if any longer
than wide, margined at base and on sides be-
hind, anterior area strongly, rather sparsely
asperate, summit moderately elevated above
the shining, finely punctured posterior area;
elytra finely punctate-striate, subglabrous on
disk; declivity arched, very feebly or not at all
sulcate, vestiture scanty to abundant.
Genotype: Tachyderes floridensts, n. sp.

Tachyderes floridensis, n. sp.

Female—Light reddish brown; 2.06—2.43
mm long, holotype 2.80 mm long, 2.60 times
as long as wide.

Frons very wide between eyes; convex above,
weakly concave between eyes; surface shining,
finely granulate, with one or several large
granules or small tubercles above concavity;
hairs fine, rather short, inconspicuous except
in profile. Eye moderately large, short oval,
about one-third divided by a wide emargina-
tion; facets coarse. Antenna with club flat-
tened, ovate, 1.29 times as long as wide, no-
tably longer than funicle, with three subparallel,
arcuate sutures indicated by setal rows, none
of them septate.

Pronotum 1.11 times as wide as long, widest
near base, posterior border indistinctly mar-
gined, nearly straight, posterior angles not
rounded; sides feebly arcuate on posterior
third, semicircularly rounded in front, without
anterior lateral constriction; anterior margin
with eight strong, coarse serrations, longer
than wide (occasionally only seven are present) ;
summit central in position and moderately
high; anterior area steeply arched, with
slightly irregular, concentric rows of coarse,
moderately sparse, wide asperities; posterior
area shining, broadly transversely impressed,
with shallow, fine, indistinct punctures; median
line impunctate, not elevated; vestiture fairly
conspicuous on anterior area, very inconspicu-
ous on disk. :

Elytra equal to pronotum in width and 1.89
times as long, 1.71 times as long as wide; sides
subparallel on anterior two-thirds, narrowly
rounded behind; surface light reddish brown,

VOL. 33, NO. 2

moderately shining, reticulate; punctures mod-
erately small, shallow, close, in nearly regular
strial rows, the first rather weakly impressed;
interspaces nearly impunctate on disk and
sides, with very few, fine, short hairs. Declivity
sloping, suture weakly elevated; first stria dis-
tinctly impressed, with punctures obsolescent;
second stria slightly impressed, with interven-
ing second interspace forming a very shallow,
narrow sulcus: interspaces with a few very fine,
shallow punctures, bearing moderately short,
erect, spatulate bristles.

Male.—Much smaller, 1.51 mm long, 2.30
times as long as wide; frons convex above,
transversely impressed below, more finely
sculptured than in female; pronotum with mar-
ginal serrations reduced or partly obsolete; ely-
tra with dorsal contour arcuate from base to
apex, sculpture weak.

Type locality —Paradise Key, Fla.

Additional localtties—Haiti, Virgin Is-
lands, Mexico, Texas.

Host.— Rhacoma crossopetalum L.

Additional host.— Hevea brasiliensis Muell.

Type matertal.—Holotype, allotype, and 60
paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 56415.

The holotype and 2 paratypes were taken
March 9, 1919, on Paradise Key, Fla., by
H. 8. Barber; the allotype and 45 paratypes
were reared from Rhacoma crossopetalum, Big
Pine Key, Fla., by Barber and Schwarz; 1
paratype each from Biscayne and Key West,
Fla., were collected by Hubbard and Schwarz;
1 paratype, Royal Palm, Fla., March 21, 1929,
by W. 8. Blatchley; 5 paratypes taken by
W. H. Jenkins from Hevea brasiliensis at
Bayeux, Haiti; 5 paratypes from Tampico,
Mexico, by E. A. Schwarz; 1 paratype taken
by Jones and Pratt at Brownsville, Tex.,
March 20, 1908; 1 paratype, St. Croix, Virgin
Islands, H. A. Beatty, collector.

Tachyderes parvus, n. sp.

Female.—Reddish brown; 1.71 mm long,
2.61 times as long as wide; considerably
smaller than floridensts and darker in color.

Frons very wide between eyes, feebly shin-
ing, convex above, somewhat flattened be-
tween eyes, strongly granulate-punctate, with
granules coarser above and at sides, and nearly
lacking below in median line, hairs sparse, fine,
short and inconspicuous. Eye smaller than in

Fars. 15, 1943 BLACKMAN: NEW NEOTROPICAL BARK BEETLES ov

Figs. 1-6.—1, Antenna of female of Tachyderes floridensis, n. sp.; 2, fore tibia of T’. floridensis,
female; 3, antenna of Gnatholeptus mandibularis, n. sp.; 4, fore tibia of G. mandibularis; 5, frontal view
of G. mandibularis; 6, frontal view of G. panamensis, n. sp. The drawings were made by Mrs. Mary
F. Benson under the author’s supervision. 3

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

floridensis and facets much finer, nearly one-
third divided by a rather wide emargination.
Antenna similar to that of other species, club
with sutures not so strongly arcuate, none of
them septate.

Pronotum almost exactly as wide as long,
widest near base, posterior outline nearly
straight, weakly margined, posterior angles
scarcely rounded; sides nearly straight and sub-
parallel on posterior half, moderately rounded
in front, with anterior margin bearing nine
moderately large serrations (smaller than in
floridensis); summit very slightly behind mid-
dle, moderately high; anterior area with ir-
regularly concentric rows of asperities, higher
and sharper and more numerous than in
floridensis; posterior area feebly shining, mod-
erately, transversely impressed, with small,
moderately shallow punctures; median line im-
punctate; vestiture scanty.

Elytra slightly wider than pronotum, and
1.69 times as long, 1.65 times as long as wide;
sides subparallel on anterior three-fifths, then
gradually narrowed, rather narrowly rounded
behind; surface dark reddish brown, moder-
ately shining, finely reticulate; punctures mod-
erately fine, moderately shallow, in nearly reg-
ular strial rows, only the first row faintly im-
pressed; interspaces nearly impunctate on disk
and sides, with a few minute hairs. Declivity
moderately sloping, first and second striae
slightly impressed, the punctures obsolescent;
interspaces with a few rather short hairs, not
thickened as in floridensts.

Male unknown.

Type locality —Cayamas, Cuba.

Host.—Unknown.

Type material.—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no.
56416, collected by E. A. Schwarz.

Tachyderes harringtoni, n. sp.

Female.—Reddish brown; 1.38 mm long,
2.55 times as long as wide; smaller than either
parvus or floridensis.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Frons strongly convex, granulate, sub-
opaque above, impressed in median area below,
shining, finely punctured, with fine, inconspicu-
ous hairs. Eye moderately small, facets rather
fine, less than a third divided by a wide emar-
gination. Antenna similar to that of flori-
densts but with sutures of club more weakly
arcuate.

Pronotum nearly as wide as long, widest
near base, posterior outline nearly straight,
finely but distinctly margined, posterior angles
scarcely rounded; sides feebly arcuate, nearly
semicircularly rounded in front, with anterior
margin bearing moderate-sized serrations;
summit moderate, slightly behind middle; an-
terior area with rather sparse, broad, rather
low asperities, irregularly, subconcentrically
arranged; posterior area feebly shining, broadly,
shallowly, transversely impressed,- with small,
rather indistinct punctures, the interstices
finely reticulate; median line impunctate, not
elevated; vestiture moderate on anterior area,
scanty and inconspicuous on posterior area.

Elytra equal in width to pronotum and 1.70
times as long, 1.68 times as long as wide; sides
subparallel on anterior two-thirds, moderately
rounded behind; surface reddish brown, sub-
opaque to feebly shining, finely reticulate;
punctures of moderate size, rather shallow, in
nearly regular strial rows, only the first stria
feebly impressed on disk; interspaces finely
rugulose, with a few fine, shallow punctures,
and with a very few fine, short hairs. Declivity
of the usual type for the genus, with first stria
impressed, the punctures obsolete on first, re-
duced on other striae; interspaces with short,
erect, cinereous, spatulate hairs more numerous
than on other species of the genus.

Male unknown.

Type locality —Yaguacua, Bolivia.

Host.—Unknown.

Type material—Holotype and five para-
types, U.S.N.M. no. 56417, collected by G. L.
Harrington in March, 1924.

Fes. 15, 1943

ENTOMOLOGY .—WNew species of syrphid flies in the National Museum.!

HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 39

FRANK

M. Hutu, University of Mississippi (Communicated by ALAN STONE.)

This paper concludes a study of mis-
cellaneous syrphid flies in the United States
National Museum that was begun several
years ago. Earlier reports upon this material
have appeared in this JouRNAL. I wish to
thank C. T. Greene and Dr. E. A. Chapin
for many helpful courtesies and facilities
in the study of these flies. The types are in
the National Museum; paratypes where
available are in the author’s collection.

Mesogramma guttifera, n. sp.

Distinct in the pairs of oval spots upon the
abdomen; the pattern suggests certain species
of Xanthandrus.

Female —Length 7 mm. Head: Vertex shin-
ing black; front for a trifle more than the me-
dian third shining blue-black, the sides bright
yellow; frontal pile white, vertical pile black.
Face and all but the posterior portion of cheeks
pale yellow, white pilose, the former very short
in profile; a very low tubercle lies at the point
of greatest forward production. Antennae light
brown, the third joint dark but reddish below
at base. Thorax: Humeri, the lateral margins
throughout, a complete marginal border upon
the shining, brownish-black scutellum, the pos-
terior half of the mesopleura and upper half
of the sternopleura, all light yellow. Disk of
mesonotum dull black with a broad, median
vitta, which in some lights is light gray, in
others bright steel-blue. There are on each side
_of this vitta three additional vittae, the middle
one of which is much wider, suturally divided,
and all three of which are margined at least
narrowly with dark blue-black color. Abdomen
narrowly oval, shining blackish marked with
pairs of translucent, oval, yellow or light brown
spots. First segment light yellow, black on pos-
terior half. Second segment with a pair of oval
yellowish spots, transverse, lying in the middle
of each half of the segment, but broadly con-
fluent with each other medially. Third segment,
in the middle of each half, with a large sub-
quadrate, but almost trapezoidal, slightly
diagonal spot, the two well separated. Fourth
segment with similar spots of almost the same

1 Received August 10, 1942.

size, their corners barely more rounded. Fifth
segment with similar but smaller and much
more rounded oval spots. Legs yellow; the
hind femora with a wide, subapical black an-
nulus, their tibiae dark brown at base and
apex, narrowly yellow in the middle, their tarsi
blackish; other tarsi brownish. Wings hyaline;
stigma dark brown.

Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 56421),
Guatemala City, IV, 10 (J. M. Aldrich).

Baccha amabilis, n. sp.

Somewhat similar to flavipennis Wiedemann,
with narrower abdomen and fewer linear vittae.

Male—Length 7 mm. Head: Vertex shining
black. The front on upper third is opaque black
viewed vertically, and at the eye margin at
each lower angleof this triangle thereis a small,
punctate, white, hemispherical pubescent spot.
The very swollen front is shining brown below,
yellowish above the antennae. Face tubercu-
late, metallic black, with another white pubes-
cent spot on each side at the upper eye margin.
Antennae small, light brown, the third joint
orange below; second joint nearly as long as
third. Thorax very dark brown, with a pair of
linear, widely separated, very obscure, gray or
blue-black vittae; medially there is a pair of
close, still more faint, brown-black vittae.
Scutellum lght brown, translucent, its pile
and that of mesonotum erect, black, its basal
fringe of five or six hairs pale. Abdomen moder-
ately slender, parallel-sided from beyond the
second segment, that segment constricted a
little upon the basal half; color of abdomen
light orange-brown, with darker vittae. Third
to fifth segments with a pair of very narrowly
separated (confluent upon the fifth segment)
and narrow, medial vittae; these segments, on
each side, with a pair of narrow, lateral vittae,
each pair of which is confluent upon its pos-
terior half, and whose outer section comprises
the lateral margin itself. Second segment light
brown with a small, rounded, yellowish, diffuse
spot near the middle upon each side. Abdom-
inal pile black, fairly long and abundant on
the sides of the first segment. Legs: All the
femora light yellow, except a wide subapical
annulus upon. the hinder pair; remainder of

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

first two pairs yellowish except the tarsi; their
tarsi and remainder of hind legs blackish
brown; all pile blackish; middle femora with a
long fringe on the posterior surface. Wings
light gray, very gradually becoming smoky
brown on the basal third.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 56422),
Iquitos, Peru, March—April, 1931 (R. C. Shan-

non).

Baccha nepenthe, n. sp.

Related distantly to conopida Phillipi. This
species is characterized by the very slender,
light colored, basal petiole of the abdomen,
the broadly expanded black terminal part, and
the slight dip in the third vein.

Male.—Length 10 mm. Head: Front, face
and cheeks, and antennae reddish brown, the
third antennal joint somewhat darker above.
Thorax: Mesothorax black except upon the
pleura, humeri, wide lateral margins, scutellum
and an extensive area in front of the scutellum,
all of which are reddish brown. Pile everywhere
extremely short, thick, and pale. There is a
median gray-pollinose vitta; also there is a
transverse vitta, similar though fainter on each
side on the anterior margin of the suture. Ab-
domen very spatulate, the second segment long
and cylindrical and together with the narrow
lateral corners of the first segment and the
greatly compressed base of the third segment
light orange-brown. Remainder of the ex-
panded, flattened abdomen black and black
pilose. Legs light reddish brown. Wings: An-
terior margin brownish to the end of the stig-
mal cell, this cell a little darker and the brown
color expanded centrally. Third longitudinal
vein slightly curved near the middle, the sub-
apical cross vein very sigmoid.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 56423),
Bonita, Fla., 5-20-1932 (A. R. Taylor). Ex
Dactylopius tomentosus. Also one male and one
female paratype in U.S.N.M. One paratype in
author’s collection.

Baccha nymphaea, n. sp.

Related to carlota Curran; distinguished by
the bicolored nonfasciate abdomen; lateral
mesonotal margins continuously yellow almost
to scutellum.

Female.—Length 11 mm. Head: Vertex and
an annular ring before the antennae black.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Front, face, and cheeks yellow, the first tend-
ing to brown. Antennae elongate, the first two
joints yellowish brown, the third joint black,
narrowly reddish below, the arista light brown.
Thorax: Mesonotum light ochraceous-brown
with four black vittae, the medial pair chiefly
confluent along their medial margins and di-
verging posteriorly and evanescent some dis-
tance from the scutellum. Between the black
vittae there is golden pubescence. Scutellum
and all of pleura subtranslucent pale yellow.
Abdomen subtranslucent yellow to a little be-
fore the middle of the third segment and
throughout most of the sides of the third seg- ~
ment. Remainder of abdomen brownish black
with black pile. Legs yellow, the bases of the
tibiae whitish yellow, the hind tarsi more
brownish above. Pile yellow except upon the
hind trochanters and medial surface of their
coxae. Wings with the stigmal cell and both
sides of the third longitudinal vein to a point
about the middle of the stigmal cell light brown.
Third longitudinal vein rather arcuate, the
subapical cross vein sigmoid.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 56424), Cam-
pinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil (H. F. G. Sauer). One
paratype, same data, in author’s collection.

Baccha eruptova, n.sp. ~

Related to peruviana Shannon but differing
in the abdominal proportions and pattern.

Female.—Length 15 mm (abdomen 10 mm);
wing 10.5 mm. Head: Vertex shining black with
a bluish tinge. Upper half of the front, except
narrowly along the sides, opaque black, lower
half strongly shining blue-black; narrow sides
of front for two-thirds of its height, linearly
white pubescent and this pubescence discontin-
uous with that on the sides of the face. Frontal
and upper facial pile black. Face tuberculate,
metallic black, the sides yellowish and white
pubescent; cheeks black. Antennae black, of
normal shape, the inner end of second joint a
little produced. Thorax brown-black, obscurely
shining, with a pair of slender, widely separated,
very obscure, dark brown pollinose vittae. Scu-
tellum dark brown, shining, its pile and that of
mesonotum black and short; its fringe in part —
black, rather long, of thirty or more bristles.
Squamae and fringe dark brown. Abdomen
elongate, the second and sixth segments of
about equal length, the former as wide apically

Fras. 15, 1943

as the latter at base; third to fifth segments of
slightly decreasing length, the third four-fifths
as long as second, and about twice as wide at
its apex as at the narrowest width of the second
segment; last segment cylindrical at base and
strongly compressed laterally at apex. Color of
abdomen shining blackish to dark mahogany,
the basal corners of the second and third seg-
ments light mahogany, and on the second this
color extends two-thirds of the length of the
segment along its sides. There is a narrow-
pronged, opaque triangle (black in oblique
view) in the middle of the second segment,
and a wider shorter one upon the third segment.
Abdominal pile black, abundant and rather
long on the sides of the first segment. Legs dark
brown, the hinder pair black as far as the
middle of the basitarsal joint, yellowish white
and similarly pilose upon the terminal portion;
elsewhere the legs are black pilose. Wings
brown on the basal two-fifths as far as anterior
cross vein.

Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 56425),
Iquitos, Peru, March—April 1931 (R. C. Shan-
non). ;

Volucella brunnigaster, n. sp.

Somewhat similar in general appearance to
mellea Jaen., but distinguished by the scutellar
depression and numerous other differences.

Male.—Length 12 mm. Head: Front, face,
and cheeks reddish orange-brown, rather deep,
the low tubercle with long black pile. The sides
of the face with reddish-golden pubescence,
a few similar hairs and a few long hairs above.
Antennae orange-brown, the third joint twice
as long as basal width, the arista with 15 dorsal
rays. Thorax shining black with a golden cast,
the sides dark brown, the bristles black, the
pile thick, short, yellowish, among which are
numerous very long and slender black hairs;
no prescutellar bristles. Scutellum brown with
rugose transverse depression and six pairs of
black marginal bristles. Scutellar pile, except
in the corners, black. Abdomen translucent,
orange-brown, with some black upon the first
two segments. The first segment, except the
sides, and a medial, narrow and posteriorly
attenuated vitta on the second segment black.
Pile of abdomen widely black upon the pos-
terior half of the third and fourth segments and
narrowly toward the sides on the posterior mar-
gin of the second segment, otherwise golden.

HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 41

Legs black. The apices of the femora, the wide
base of all the tibiae, and their apices narrowly
reddish brown. Tarsi brown, becoming black-
ish upon their distal joints. Wings: Veins mar-
gined with brown, the central cross veins a little
darker and an obscure spot at the end of the
subcosta. Marginal cell very widely opened.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 51351), Meta
District, Colombia, B. Guevara collector, 1932.
One paratype, same data, in author’s collec-
tion.

Volucella viridigaster, n. sp.

Related to verdigaster, n. sp., but with less
extensive vittae and fascia upon the abdomen
and the wing veins not conspicuously margined.

Male.—Length 11 mm. Head: Front, face,
and cheeks pale whitish yellow. There is a pale,
diffuse, brownish vitta separating face and
cheeks and one down the middle of the deep-
conical face. The low tubercle is densely short
black pilose, the front longer black pilose, the
sides of the face white pilose and pubescent.
Antennae orange, the third joint two and one-
half times as long as the basal width. Thorax:
Mesonotum black, the sides light brownish
yellow, the bristles black, the scutellum sub-
translucent brownish yellow with five pairs of
black bristles, a shallow preapical depression
and black pile. Pile of thorax chiefly black with
considerable whitish pile anteriorly. There are
no prescutellar bristles. Squamae light yellow
with brown fringe. Abdomen pale green trans-
lucent: the middle of the first segment, a nar-
row medial expanding vitta on the second seg-
ment black and confluent with a linear, black
posterior border; the black border evanescent
laterally; a similar evanescent black border on
the third segment. Pile of abdomen black,
short, dense, and appressed except over the
basal portion of each segment. Legs black, the
apices of the femora, the bases of the tibiae and
the basal tarsal joints dark brown. Wings pale
brown, cross veins clouded, the marginal cell
widely opened.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 51350), Eeua-
dor, F. Campos R. A paratype, same data, in
author’s collection.

Volucella verdigaster, n. sp.

Related to inconsistens Curran, but with wide
black median vittae on the abdomen as well
as fasciae.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Male.—Length 12 mm. Head: Middle of
front black, the sides of front and face pale
yellow. The cheeks and broad middle of the
face black. Face deep conical, the pile thick
over the tubercle and chiefly black with some
shorter pile mixed with longer black hair on the
sides. Antennae dark brown, the third joint
twice as long as basal width, the arista with 27
dorsal rays. Thorax: Mesonotum black with a
bluish and violaceous tinge, the humeri, a pre-
sutural and prenotopleural, besides a pair of
prescutellar spots and a pair of elongate spots
almost adjacent to the postcalli, all light
yellow. Thoracic bristles and pile black except
for some short white pile upon the yellow spots
and in the midline anteriorly. No prescutellar
bristles. Scutellum dark brown with transverse
rugose depressions and five pairs of long black
bristles. Abdomen black with large, subrec-
tangular, apple-green translucent spots in the
lateral corners of the second segment, and
more irregular spots in the lateral corners of
the third and fourth which extend posteriorly
to cover the entire lateral margin. Pile very
dense, rather long, nearly erect, and black
except upon the pale areas, where it is whitish.
Legs black and black pilose. Wings hyaline,
strongly clouded with brown along all of the
cross veins and the distal portions of the second,
third and fourth longitudinal veins; marginal
cell widely opened.

Holotype, male (U.S.N.M. no. 51354), and
one paratype, Bogotdé, Colombia, B. Guevara
collector, in U.S. National Museum; one para-
type, same data, in author’s collection.

Volucetla flavogaster, n. sp.

This species suggests zonaria Linnaeus, of
Europe. It is characterized by the linear black
fascia of the abdomen and other markings.

Male.—Length 14 mm. Head: Entire face
except for a pale, diffuse vitta separating face
and cheeks bright yellow, golden pilose. The
eyes of the male instead of being holoptic are
merely approximated. Antennae orange, the
third joint short, one and one-half times as
long as basal width, the dorsal margin concave.
The long arista has 26 dorsal rays. Ocellar pile
orange. Thorax: Mesonotum orange-brown
with a sublateral black vitta broken at the
suture, and on the posterior area of the dorsum
a pair of submedial anterolaterally attenuated

VOL. 33, NO. 2

blackish spots. There are 9 or 10 prominent,
black, prescutellar bristles, and all the lateral
bristles are black. Scutellum orange-brown,
swollen, with four pairs of black bristles. Squa-
mae and fringe yellow. Abdomen orange-yellow
marked with black as follows: Whole of the
first segment, a basal fascia on the second ex-
panded in the middle into a vitta that connects
with a very narrow line at posterior margin;
laterally this posterior marginal line is conflu-
ent with a transverse, narrow fascia occupying
the lateral fourth of the segment just beyond
the middle. Third segment with a narrow,
basally attenuated, medial black vitta, a still
narrower, posterior, black marginal marking,
which is confined to the margin and not con-
nected with the narrower transverse fascia.
Fourth segment similar except that the mark-
ing along posterior margin is absent and the ~
transverse fascia now occupies the middle of
the long convex segment. Legs light yellow, the
femora somewhat more brownish, their pile
blackish on the lateral surfaces; elsewhere the
pile is golden. Wings strongly tinged with yel-
low, the posterior margin pale brown, the
marginal cell closed and stalked, it and the cell
behind it light brown.

Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 51356),
Chinkiang, China, May 1923. A paratype,
same data, in author’s collection; also two
paratypes from Nanking, China, one in the
Vienna Museum, one in author’s collection.

This is a very pretty species, and I have not
been able to identify it with any Asiatic species
known to me.

Graptomyza globigaster, n. sp.

This species suggests flavorhyncha Hull in
the pattern of its abdomen; the fasciae are not
medially expanded, however, and the face is
short.

Female.—Length 6 mm. Head: Front, face,
and cheeks pale yellow, marked with black; a
narrow medial black stripe on the front and
brownish down the middle of the face, darker
between face and cheeks. Four or five blackish
hairs on the tubercle and a few shorter ones
below. Antennae elongate, orange, the third
joint grayish above and three and one-half
times as long as wide. The arista is nonplu-
mose. Thorax: Mesonotum broadly black, the
humeri, propleura, most of the mesopleura pos-

Fes. 15, 1948

teriorly, the wide lateral margins of the mesono-
tum and the area before the scutellum, all pale
yellow. Scutellum dark brown, blackish over
the broad central concavity. Thoracic and
scutellar bristles black, the short pile yellow.
Abdomen oval-globose, subtranslucent, orange-
brown marked with black as follows: a black
fascia lying on the posterior portion of the
second segment attenuated medially and medi-
ally indented behind and withdrawn from the
margin; this fascia is continuous with an
abruptly diagonal and slender, sublateral black
vitta on each side of the third segment, which
extends to the posterior corner and leaves the
anterior corner pale. The posterior portion of
the third segment is marked with a similar
diverging black fascia, which, however, is
broadly interrupted medially but also attenu-
ated; laterally it connects narrowly with a
wider and similar sublateral vitta. Fourth
seement with a long, median vitta and a pair
of sublateral, shorter, more posterior black
vittae; these black vittae are wide and an-
teriorly rounded and none of them reaches the
basal margin. Legs pale yellow, the apical
fourth of the hind femora and all of hind tibiae
black and chiefly black pilose, elsewhere the
pile is pale. Wings hyaline with a pair of pale,
slightly oblique, brownish fasciae beginning
at the ends of the first and second longitudinal
veins. The first of these bands reaches the base
of the lower cross vein, the second reaches and
follows the subapical cross vein. There is a small
brown spot at the end of the subcostal vein.

Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 52904), and
2 paratype females in U. S. National Museum,
Island of Biliran, Philippines, C. F. Baker,
collector. Paratype, same data, in author’s
collection.

Brachypalpus trilineata, n. sp.

Differing from any described species in the
narrow, pale fascia of the abdomen.
Female—Length 14 mm. Head: Front and

HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES 43

vertex shining black, the sides of the former
narrowly yellow pubescent, all pile except a
few black hairs at ocelli and above the anten-
nae, yellowish. The prominent face is bare, dull

_and very dark mahogany, the cheeks shining

black. Face with a very large, low, long tuber-
cle, and a quite wide, thickly golden pubescent
stripe reaching from eye to epistoma and con-
tinued broadly up the sides of the face to
unite below the antennae. Antennae short,
black, the third joint almost circular in outline.
Thorax rather light brownish pollinose with
rather obscure, broad vittae. Pleura thickly
covered with ochre-colored pollen. The abun-
dant pile of pleura and mesonotum is ochra-
ceous, except for a few long, erect, black hairs
on the posterior third of the mesonotum.
Seutellum shining black, long, yellow-pilose,
with a copious ventral fringe. Abdomen very
broad and flat, with nearly parallel sides, a
little wider in the middle of the abdomen.
Abdomen dully shining black, marked with
yellow to brown fascia. First segment light
brownish basally. Second segment with a trans-
verse, yellow-brown, basomedially indented,

_parallel-sided fascia near the middle running

almost to the lateral margin. Third and fourth
segments each with a subbasal, narrower,
parallel-sided, light-yellow and yellow-pollinose
fascia reaching the lateral margin; the fascia
upon the fourth segment is slightly arcuate,
especially toward the sides. Abdominal pile
rather short, appressed and black except upon
the first segment and the sides of the base of the
second segment. Legs: Femora black: all the
tibiae and tarsi except their distal joints, light
orange. Wings light brown, the stigmal cell no
darker, the stigmal cross vein heavy. The small
cross vein is located four-fifths of the length of
the discal cell from its base.

Holotype, female (U.S.N.M. no. 56426),
Tjibodas, Mount Gede, Java, 4.09, Bryant and
Palmer, collectors. p:

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 2

ZOOLOGY.—North American monogenetic trematodes: VI. The family Dicli-
dophoridae (Diclidophoroidea).:| EmMmMrmrt W. Pricz, Bureau of Animal In-

dustry.

As in previous sections of the series, this
paper deals with flatworms that live as ex-
ternal parasites on cold-blooded verte-
brates. The members of the family Dicli-
dophoridae are for the most part parasites
of marine fishes, living on the gills and oc-
casionally in the mouth. The organization
and purpose of this paper are the same as
for previous installments (Price, 1937, 1938,
1939a, 1939b, 1942).

DICLIDOPHOROIDEA Price, 1936

Diagnosis.—Anterior haptor in form of two
lateral, oval or circular suckers opening into
the oral cavity. Posterior haptor variable in
shape and position, usually at the posterior
end of body, sometimes ventral or lateral,
usually provided with two rows of suckers or
clamplike adhesive organs having a compli-
cated, heavily cuticularized, riblike, supporting
structure; posterior tip of haptor often ter-
minating in a tonguelike structure or ‘‘lan-
guette’’ frequently armed with one to three
pairs of hooks. Digestive system consisting of
a prepharynx serving as an oral cavity, a
bulbous pharynx, a short esophagus, and an
intestine consisting, except in Dvzplozoon, of
two principal branches provided with numerous
median and lateral diverticula. Eyes absent.
Male and female genital apertures usually
opening to exterior through a common pore
situated ventrally. Cirrus armed or unarmed.
Testes usually numerous, postovarial, occa-
sionally preovarial. Ovary elongate, folded.
Vaginae present or absent, usually opening
dorsally. Parasites of fishes, or of crustaceans
parasitic on fishes.

Type family.—Diclidophoridae Fuhrmann,
1928.

KEY TO FAMILIES OF DICLIDOPHOROIDEA?

1. Framework of haptoral suckers consisting of 8
principal pieces (Fig. 1, A)............ eae
Depa saatote tenes DIcLIDOPHORIDAE Fuhrmann

1 Received September 7, 1942.

2 No entirely satisfactory key can at present be
formulated to distinguish the families of Diclido-
phoroidea. The principal group characters are in

Framework of haptoral suckers consisting of
fewer than 8 principal pieces............ 2

2. Framework of haptoral suckers consisting of 3
pieces (Fig. 1, F)... HEXosTOMATIDAE Price

Framework of haptoral suckers cgnsisting of

more than 3 pieces: .. :...0.a..se ee 3

3. Haptoral suckers relatively strongly muscular
(Fig. 1, B); vagina double (absent in Octo-
macrum), openings lateral. .<. 0. 225.

OCR tee ores ae DiscocoTyLiDAE Price
Haptoral suckers relatively weakly muscular;
vagina’ when present, usually single and
opening dorsally... .. 5.2.2 Sense eee 4

4. Haptoral suckers usually numerous, framework
as shown in Fig. 1,°C....0.4 262 See
he ee MicrocotTyLipAE Taschenberg

Haptoral suckers variable in number, frame-

work not as above. .......:.<. a. 5

5. Haptoral suckers usually numerous, framework
as in Fig. 1, D....GasTRocoTyLipag, n. f.
Haptoral suckers few in number, framework
AS elas Hae pule ye eee MAaZzOCRAEIDAE Price

Family Diclidophoridae Fuhrmann, 1928

Synonym.—Choricotylidae Rees and Llewel-
lyn, 1941.

Diagnosis—Haptor terminal, usually bear-
ing four pairs of cuplike adhesive structures
having a complicated, heavily cuticularized
framework of the general type as shown in
Fig. 1,A. Cirrus usually armed with a circle of
curved hooks, which are crescentic in cross
section.’ Seminal receptacle usually, if not al-
ways, present. Vaginae usually absent.

Type genus.—Dichidophora Diesing, 1850.

KEY TO SUBFAMILIES OF DICLIDOPHORIDAE

Haptoral sucker clamplike or pincerlike........
Pel Penns CCNA Mets DIcLIDOPHORINAE Cerfontaine
Haptoral suckers cuplike.. 2°. .2. sso eceeeeee
SEPM CEOS Meare gai a4. CYCLOCOTYLINAE, n. subf.

Subfamily Diclidophorinae Cerfontaine, 1895

Diagnosis.—Haptor with four pairs of pe-
dunculated clamplike suckers of the type shown
in Fig. 1, A. Cirrus armed. Vaginae absent.

Type genus.—Diclidophora Diesing, 1850.

the number and shape of the pieces composing the
framework of the haptoral suckers; so far no de-
scriptive terms have been proposed for these
structures that will impart a sufficiently clear
picture of their appearance.

3 The hooks of the genital coronet are crescentic
in cross section and this frequently gives them the
appearance of being ‘‘double pointed.”

ee ee a ee ee ee

Fes. 15, 1943

KEY TO GENERA OF DICLIDOPHORINAE

1. Haptor distinctly set off from body proper...
<2: ee Diclidophoroides, n. gen.
Haptor not distinctly set off from body proper

ae Mies e /@) (@ \e) =) 28, a 0, e « = 8. 6 © ‘6 je © se) @ so 2 ee 6 8 © «© @ os

2. Testes postovarial....... Octodactylus Dalyell

Testes preovarial and postovarial...........
2 ee Diclidophora Diesing

Fig. 1.—Types of haptoral suckers in the super-
family Diclidophoroidea: A, Diclidophoridae; B,
Discocotylidae; C, Microcotylidae; D, Gastro-
cotylidae; E, Mazocraeidae; F, Hexostomatidae.

Genus Diclidophora Diesing, 1850

Synonyms.— Dactycotyle Beneden and Hesse,
1863; Dactylocotyle Marschall, 1873.

Diagnosis.—Haptor not set off from body
proper, bearing four pairs of pedunculated,
clamplike suckers. Testes numerous, preova-
rial and postovarial. Eggs with polar prolonga-
tions. >

Type species.—Diclidophora longicollis Die-
sing, 1850 [ = D. merlangi (Kuhn, in Nordmann,
1832)].

The genus Diclidophora was proposed by
Diesing (1850) for two species, D. longicollis
Diesing and D. palmata (F. 8. Leuckart), the
former being Octostoma merlangi Kuhn (in
Nordmann, 1832) renamed. Both of these spe-
cies were regarded by Cerfontaine (1895) as

PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES 45

congeneric with Dactycotyle pollachit Beneden
and Hesse, 1863, the type (subsequent desig-
nation by Stiles and Hassall, 1908) of Dacty-
cotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1863 (= Dactylo-
cotyle Marschall, 1873). Of the two species
originally included in the genus Diclidophora,
D. palmata (F.S. Leuckart) is apparently iden-
tical with Octodactylus inhaerens Dalyell (1853).
Since the original species of Diclidophora, as
well as several species subsequently added to
the genus, are clearly divided into two groups
on the basis of testicular distribution, it ap-
pears desirable to recognize both Diclidophora
Diesing and Octodactylus Dalyell as valid gen-
era. Diclidophora merlangi (Kuhn) of Mac-
Callum, 1917, having characters of the sub-
family but not being congeneric with either
Diclidophora or Octodactylus, is placed in the
new genus Diclidophoroides.

The species comprising the genus Dicli-
dophora (s. str.)4 are D. merlangi (Kuhn, in
Nordmann, 1832),5 from Gadus merlangus in
Kurope; D. denticulata (Olsson, 1876),n. comb.,
from Pollachius virens; D. luscae (Beneden and
Hesse, 1863), n. comb., from Morrhua lusca;
and D. pollachit (Beneden and Hesse, 1863),
n. comb., from Pollachius pollachius.

4 Dactylocotyle minor Ishii (1936) renamed D.
thunni Ishii, in Ishii and Sawada (1938), does
not belong to the genus Dactylocotyle (= Diclido-
phora) but is a species of Mazocraes.

5 Dollfus (1922) has raised the question as to
the authorship of the name merlangi, which was
credited to Kuhn by Nordmann (1832), and pre-
fers to regard Nordmann as the author since the
name credited to Kuhn was only a manuscript
name. In spite of the fact that the name ‘“‘Octo-
stoma merlangi Kuhn” is a manuscript or label
name, which probably accompanied specimens
that were sent by Kuhn to Rudolphi and later
studied by Nordmann, the following are reasons
for recognizing Kuhn as the author: Nordmann
placed the name “‘Octostoma merlangt Kuhn’’ as
a synonym of ‘‘Octobothrium(?) merlangi”’ (= Di-
clidophora merlangi), thereby crediting Kuhn
with the name of the species. Opinion 4 of the
International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature
states that ‘‘Manuscript names acquire standing
in nomenclature when printed in accordance with
the provisions of Art. 25, and the question as to
their validity is not influenced by the fact whether
such names are accepted or rejected by the author
responsible for their publication.”’ The name in
question was used for the species now known as
Diclidophora merlangi and the conditions under
which it was used conform to those stipulated
under Art. 25; therefore, there seems to be no
question as to the validity of the name, and the
authorship of the species should, accordingly, be
credited to Kuhn, in Nordmann, 1832.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Diclidophora denticulata (Olsson, 1876),
n. comb.
Figs. 2-3

Synonyms.—Octobothrium denticulatum Ols-
son, 1876; Dactylocotyle denticulatum (Ols-
son, 1876) Cerfontaine, 1895; D. carbonarii
Cerfontaine, 1895.

Description—Body 7 mm long by 1.6 mm
wide at level of ovary, tapering gradually an-
teriorly. Anterior haptors in form of a pair of
suckers, each about 170u in diameter, opening
into oral cavity. Posterior haptor more:or less
rectangular, about 2.1 mm long, not set off
from body proper, bearing four pairs of pe-
dunculated clamplike suckers; no terminal
hooks. Suckers about equal in size, 680u wide,
supported by complicated cuticular structure
(Fig. 3); wall of suckers muscular; outer an-
terior quadrant of suckers armed with 30 to
AQ lancelike spines. Oral aperture subterminal;
pharynx oval, 487u long by 153u wide; re-
mainder of digestive tract not observable in
available material. Male genital aperture me-
dian, about 595u from anterior end of body;
cirrus about 95u in diameter, armed with 13
inwardly curved hooks. Testes numerous,
small, extending from about one-third of total
body length from anterior end to about level
of anterior end of haptor. Ovary N-shaped,
median, about 400u in front of anterior limit
of haptor. Vitelline follicles abundant, ex-
tending from level of female genital pore to
posterior end of haptor. Seminal receptacle and
vitelline reservoir preovarial. Genito-intestinal
canal not observed. Uterus long and slender,
in median field. Female genital aperture me-
dian, about 190u posterior to male genital
aperture. No fully formed eggs present in
available specimen.

Host.— Pollachius virens (Linnaeus).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.—United States (Woods Hole,
Mass.) and Canada (St. Mary Bay, Nova
Scotia).

Specimen.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 6508.

This species was originally described by
Olsson (1876) from specimens collected from
Gadus virens (=Pollachius virens) from the
Skaggerak, and, later, Cerfontaine (1895) gave
a detailed description of the parasite. In North
America there appear to be three records of its
occurrence: Linton (1900) reported the find-
ing of one specimen by Prof. H. M. Kelly at

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Woods Hole, Mass., and Stafford (1904) and
Cooper (1915) reported this species from Can-
ada. The specimen reported by Linton is the
one on which the above description is based.
This specimen, a toto mount, was in fair con-
dition despite the fact that two of the clamp-
like suckers of the haptor had been torn off.
D. denticulata is readily distinguishable from
the other members of the genus by the presence
of spines on the haptoral suckers.

a: a
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oot

Figs. 2-3.—Diclidophora denticulata: 2, Com-
plete worm, ventral view; 3, clamplike haptoral
sucker. Figs. 4-6.—Diclidophoroides maccallumi:
4, Complete worm, ventral view; 5, clamplike
haptoral sucker; 6, cirrus.

Genus Octodactylus Dalyell, 1853

Synonym.—Pterocotyle Beneden and Hesse,
1863.

Diagnosis —Haptor not distinctly set off
from body proper. Testes confined to post-
ovarial portion of body. Eggs usually without
polar prolongations.

Type species.—Octodactylus inhaerens Dal-
yell, 1853 [ =O. palmata (F. 8. Leuckart, 1830),
n. comb.]. :

Fes. 15, 1943

This genus contains Octodactylus palmata
(F. 8. Leuckart, 1830)® (syns. O. inhaerens
Dalyell, 1853; Octobothrium digitatum Rathke,
1843; Dactylocotyle molvae Cerfontaine, 1895),
from Molva molva; O. minus (Olsson, 1876), n.
comb., from Gadus poutasson; and O. morrhuae
(Beneden and Hesse, 1863),7 n. comb., from
Gadus morrhua. As none of these species occurs
on North American hosts, the genus will not
be considered further.

Diclidophoroides, n. gen.

Diagnosis.—Haptor distinctly set off from
body proper. Testes postovarial. Otherwise
similar to Octodactylus.

Type species.—Diclidophoroides maccallumi,
Nn. sp.
| In addition to the type species, it is possible
that Dactylocotyle phycidis Parona and Perugia,
1889, from Phycis blennoides in Europe may
belong here. The description of D. phycidis,
however, is too inadequate for definite generic
allocation. Heterobothriwm ecuadort Meserve
(1938) from Cheilichthys annulatus and H.
galapagensis Meserve (1938) from Paranthias
_ furcifer, both from the Galapagos Islands, are
tentatively included in Diclidophoroides, the
new combinations being D. ecwadori (Meserve)
and D. galapagensis (Meserve), respectively.
The pincerlike or clamplike nature of the hap-
toral suckers definitely eliminates these two
species from the genus Heterobothrium. Only
the type specimens of Meserve’s species were
available for examination, but these show the
haptors to be fairly well set off from the body
proper, although not so distinctly so as in D.
maccallumi; the haptoral suckers are subsessile
and equal in size.

Diclidophoroides maccallumi, n. sp.
Figs. 4-6

Synonyms.—Diclidophora merlangt MacCal-
lum, 1917; Dactylocotyle minor (Olsson, 1876) of
Manter, 1926; D. phycidis Parona and Pe-

6 MacCallum (1917) reported finding on the
gills of Lota maculosa ‘“‘a rather delapidated speci-
men of what seems to answer to the description
of D. palmata.’’ This specimen has been examined
and found not to be a trematode, consequently
the report of this species from North America is
erroneous.

7 The form reported by Scott (1901) from Gadus
callarius (=G. morrhua) under the name of
Pterocotyle morrhuae is probably not this species.

PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES 47

rugia, 1889, of Stafford, 1904; Choricotyle mer-
langi (MacCallum, 1917) Llewellyn, 1941.

Description.—Body elliptical, 4.2 to 6.9 mm
long by 1.5 to 2.1 mm wide. Anterior haptor in
form of a pair of suckers, each 76 to 115yu wide,
opening into oral cavity. Posterior haptor
somewhat rectangular, 1.8 mm long by 2.3 mm
wide in largest specimen, distinctly set off from
body proper, bearing four pairs of peduncu-
lated clamplike suckers, peduncles and suckers
of different sizes, first pair smallest and pos-
terior pair largest, with complicated cuticular
supporting structure (Fig. 5); smallest suckers
170 to 255u wide, largest 425 to 510u wide.
Posterior tip of haptor armed with 2 pairs of
minute hooks. Oral aperture subterminal;
pharynx oval, 157 to 170u long by 70 to 114y
wide; remainder of digestive tract not traceable
except in haptor, here branches observed to
enter peduncles of suckers. Genital aperture
median, 247 to 340u from anterior end of
body. Cirrus muscular, 38 to 95u in diameter,
armed with a circle of 13 to 16 inwardly curved
hooks. Testes relatively numerous, small, in
median field posterior to ovary; a few testes
sometimes lateral to ovary. Ovary elongate, N-
shaped, median, equatorial. Vitelline follicles
abundant, extending from a short distance
back of genital aperture to posterior end of
body proper. Seminal receptacle anterior to,
and to right of, ovary; vagina and genito-intes-
tinal canal not observed. Uterus slender, in
median field. No eggs present in available speci-
mens (eggs non-filamented, according to Man-
ter, 1926).

Host.— Urophycis chuss (Walbaum).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole,
Mass., and Mount Desert Island, Maine) and
Canada.

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. nos.
35106 (type and paratypes), 35585, and 35586.

Diclidophoroides maccallumi appears to be
the same species as that described by Manter
(1926) as Dactylocotyle minor (Olsson) from
Urophycis chuss, and as that reported by
Stafford (1904) under the name D. phycidis
Parona and Perugia from the same host in
Canada. That Diclidophorotdes maccallumi is
distinct from the form described by Olsson
(1868) as Octobothrium palmatum Leuck. f.
minor seems clear, since the haptor in Olsson’s
form shows the pedunculated suckers to be

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

equal in size and not unequal as is the case in
the specimens described by Manter, or in the
specimens collected by MacCallum.

MacCallum thought that this species might
be identical with Dactylocotyle merlangi (Kuhn),
but Dollfus (1922) has pointed out that the
two species are not identical and that the name
merlangt MacCallum should be retained for the
species described by MacCallum (1917), since
merlangt (Kuhn, of authors) belongs in the
genus Dactylocotyle (= Diclidophora). Unfor-
tunately Dollfus’s proposal, which is concurred
in by Llewellyn (1941), is untenable, as mer-
langi (Kuhn) was placed in the genus Diclt-
dophora by Kr¢yer (1838-40, p. 606) and also
by MacCallum (1917); consequently Dvclido-
phora merlangi MacCallum is a homonym and
must be renamed.

Diclidophora spp.

Linton (1905) reported Dactylocotyle sp. from
the gills of Brevoortia tyrannus and Diclido-
phora sp. from the gills of Orthopristis chrysop-
terus. The first of these forms was illustrated
but not described and the second was described
briefly as follows: ‘‘This specimen is very frag-
ile, the posterior finger-like processes appear-
ing to be somewhat macerated. Dimensions,
in millimeters; length 1.68, length exclusive
of posterior sucker 1.28; diameter at anterior
end 0.08: maximum diameter of body 0.52, of
sucker region 0.96; diameter of one of the 8
small suckers 0.13.”

The illustration of the form from Brevoortia
tyrannus indicates that it is probably a new
species and may not belong to the genus Dvcli-
dophora, but the details were not clearly
brought out and as no description was given, it
seems inadvisable to name it. The description
of the form from Orthopristis chrysopterus is
too inadequate to warrant further considera-
tion.

-Cyclocotylinae, n. subf.

Synonym.—Diclidophorinae Cerfontaine, 1895
in part.

Diagnosis.—Haptor with four pairs of ses-
sile, subsessile, or pedunculated cuplike suckers,
each provided with a heavily cuticularized
framework of the type shown in Fig. 1,A.
Cirrus armed (except in Cyelocotyloides) with
hooks as in Diclidophorinae. Vaginaz usually
absent.

VOL. 33, No. 2

Type genus.—Cyclocotyla Otto, 1823.

KEY TO GENERA OF CYCLOCOTYLINAE
1. Cirrus hooks absent... .Cyclocotyloides, n. gen.

Cirrus:‘hooks present... 20). 3-2 ee 2
2. Vaginae present..... Diclidophoropsts Gallien
Vaginae absent: ...0..0 5 ace vacte Ae 6 eee 3

3. Framework of anterior pair of haptoral suckers
orientated inversely as compared with those
of posterior 3 pairs... 2.42250) eee
Rae ear ee Heterobothrium Cerfontaine

Framework of all 4 pairs of haptoral suckers

occupying same relative orientation......4

4. Testes both pre- and postovarial............
sees wie Geneece Naa Alea Cyclobothriuum Cerfontaine
Testes entirely postovarial................ 5

5. Posterior pair of suckers sessile and widely re-
moved from anterior 3 pairs of pedunculated
SUCKENSE aaa Pedocotyle MacCallum

Posterior pair of suckers either subsessile or
pedunculated and not separated from other
PAIS. Ss os ele ooo yl ese ole es 6

6. Vitellaria extending into haptor.............

Sie Gish een hoe Ree ee Cyclocotyla Otto
Vitellaria not extending into haptor.........
FIR os olan ee RT Neoheterobothrium, n. gen.

Genus Cyclocotyla Otto, 1823

Synonyms.—Octostoma Otto, 1823, not Kuhn,
1829; Cyclostoma Otto, 1823, not Lamarck,
1799; Cyclobothrium Cerfontaine, 1895, in part;
Choricotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1863; Dicl-
dophora Diesing, of Goto, 1894, in part; Meso-
cotyle Parona and Perugia, 1889.

Diagnosis.—Haptor distinctly set off from
body proper; suckers either subsessile or pe-
dunculated, more or less equally spaced. Genital
atrium non-muscular; cirrus armed; testes post-
ovarial. Vaginae absent; vitellaria extending
into haptor.

Type species.—Cyclocotyla bellones
1828. .

This genus was proposed by Otto (1823) for
a parasite collected from the ‘Rucken-Haut
eines Hornhechts” at Naples. The description
of the species is limited to external characters,
but the figure shows it to be closely related to,
and possibly the same as, Cyclobothrium char-
cott, which was described by Dollfus (1922a;
1922b) from a crustacean parasitic on the skin
and in the mouth of Trachurus trachurus and
Box boops. A comparison of the essential char-
acters of these forms with those of the type and
other species at present included in the genus
Choricotyle Beneden and Hesse (1863) shows
them to be sufficiently similar as to be regarded
as congeneric.

Otto,

Fes. 15, 1943

As present constituted the genus Cyclocotyla

contains the following species: Cyclocotyla bel-

lones Otto, 1823, from ‘‘Hornhecht,” C. char-
coti (Dollfus, 1922), n. comb., from Cymothoa
(Meinertia) oestroides parasitic on Trachurus
trachurus and Box boops; C. chrysophryi (Bene-
den and Hesse, 1863), n. comb., from Chryso-
phrys aurata and Pagellus centrodontus; C.
caulolatili (Meserve, 1938), n. comb., from
Caulolatilus princeps; C. elongata (Goto, 1894),
n. comb., from Pagrus tumifrons; C. labracis
(Cerfontaine, 1895), n. comb., from Labrax
lupus; C. neomaenis (MacCallum, 1917), n.
comb., from Lutianus analis; C. pagelli (Gal-
lien, 1937), n. comb., from Pagellus centro-
dontus; C. prionotti (MacCallum, 1917), n.
comb., from Merulinus carolinus; C. smarts
(Ijima, in Goto, 1894),8n. comb., from Smaris
vulgaris (on caudal segment of a Cymothoa);
C. squillarum (Parona and Perugia, 1889), n.
comb., from Bopyrus squillarum; and C. tasch-
enbergit (Parona and Perugia, 1889), n. comb..
from Sargus rondeleti1. Of these, only C.

— neomaenis and C. prionott are known to occur

on North American hosts.

Cyclocotyla neomaenis (MacCallum, 1917),
n. comb.
Figs. 7—9
Synonyms.—Diclidophora neomaenis Mac-
Callum, 1917; Choricotyle neomaenis (MacCal-
lum, 1917) Llewellyn, 1941.
Description.—Body fusiform, 9 mm long, in-
cluding haptor, by 1.1 mm wide. Anterior hap-
tor in form of a pair of suckers, each 80y in
diameter, opening into oral cavity. Posterior
haptor 2.5 mm long, distinctly set off from body
proper by an isthmuslike constriction, bearing
four pairs of pedunculated clamplike suckers.
Suckers of anterior three pairs about equal in
size, 460u wide, and those of posterior pair
much smaller, 320u wide; suckers of general
type of other representatives of genus, but with
heavy corrugations of surface of inner wall of

cuter quadrants, and with fleshy linguiform

pad in depth of sucker cavity; cuticular sup-
porting structure somewhat more complicated
than that of other species (Fig. 8); no hooks
observed between posterior pair of peduncles.
Oral aperture subterminal; pharynx oval, 80u

8 The question of authorship of this species in
this case parallels that of Diclidophora merlangi.

PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES

long by 64y wide; remainder of digestive tract
not observable. Excretory apertures laterodor-
sal, slightly anterior to level of genital aperture;
remainder of excretory system not observable.
Genital aperture median, about 696 from
anterior end of body. Cirrus 88u in diameter,
armed with 12 inwardly projecting hooks.
Testes relatively few, in median field posterior
to ovary. Ovary preequatorial: odtype pre-
ovarial, massive, surrounded by numerous uni-
cellular glands. Vitelline follicles numerous,
occupying almost entire body width from level
of genital aperture to posterior end of body
proper, extending into haptor. Vagina and
genitointestinal canal not observed. No eggs
present.

Host.—Lutianus analis (Cuvier and Valen-
ciennes).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution. —United States (Key West,
Fla.).

Spectmen.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 35587
(type).

This species was described from a single
specimen collected by the late Dr. G. A. Mac-
Callum at the New York Aquarium, from a
muttonfish obtained from Key West, Fla. The
species differs from all others of the genus in the
peculiar structure of the haptoral suckers.

Cyclocotyla prionoti (MacCallum, 1917),
n. comb.
Fig. 10

Synonyms.—Diclidophora prionot. MacCal-
lum, 1917; Choricotyle prionots (MacCallum,
1917) Llewellyn, 1941.

Description.—Body elongate, 3 to 3.7 mm
long by 540 to 640u wide, anterior end with
constriction between tip of body and genital
aperture. Anterior haptor in form of a pair of
suckers, about 88u in diameter, opening into
oral cavity. Posterior haptor palmate, about
640 to 720u long, with four pairs of peduncu-
lated suckers about 240u in diameter; pe-
duncles of suckers relatively long and thick.
Oral aperture subterminal; pharynx piriform,
about 160u long by 88u wide; remainder of
digestive system not ascertainable in available
specimens. Genital aperture median, about
400u from anterior end of body. Cirrus 40 to
48u in diameter, armed with 10 inwardly curved
hooks. Testes 21 to 32 in number, relatively

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

large, median, postovarial. Ovary tubular,
folded, median, about one-third of body length
from anterior end. Vitelline follicles relatively
large, extending from slightly anterior to geni-
tal aperture to posterior end of haptor. Seminal
receptacle oval, relatively large, posterior to
ovary and to right of median line. Genitointes-
tinal canal and vagina not observed. Odtype
postovarial, surrounded by prominent mass of
unicellular glands. No eggs in available speci-
mens.

Host.—Merulinus carolinus (Linnaeus).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole,
Mass.).

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm.
35589 (cotypes), 35590, and 35591.

Coll.

20!

So,
BE

BSRe So BPS
3

SPS GRE ash rae

nos.

1
i
CLs \

’
ls
Lt iyys

VOL. 33, NO. 2

This species is closely related to Cyclocotyla
chrysophryt (Beneden and Hesse); it differs
from that species, in so far as one can determine
from the original description, in the number of
genital hooks (8 in C. chrysophryi and 10 in
C’. prionott). MacCallum (1917) stated that the
number of genital hooks was 13, but this is an
error.

Genus Cyclobothrium Cerfontaine, 1895

Synonym.—Diclidophora Diesing, of Goto,
1894, in part.

Diagnosis.—Haptor indistinctly set off from
body proper; suckers sessile. Genital atrium
nonmuscular; cirrus armed. Testes numerous,
preovarial and postovarial. Vaginae absent.

BOI o
am Rog Omer 5
Hy coat wr
SOAP
= Dea cry tS) Gy
SHES a aaew,
wa By aoe BS ES
Beonresgn earners
EERE AR SEER §

Pence
Srstenae
oa enl

ics

Ee.

Tes >

(

\
\\ >

“Wy
VW y
rittyy

. ie
ey)
a

Figs. 7-9.—Cyclocotyla neomaenis: 7, Complete worm, ventral view; 8, haptoral sucker; 9, cirrus.

Fig. 10.—Cyclocotyla prionoti, complete worm, ventral view.
11, Complete worm, dorsal view; 12, haptoral sucker; 13, haptoral languette; 14, cirrus.

Figs. 11-14.—Neoheterobothrium affine:
Figs. 15-18.—

Neoheterobothrium cynoscioni: 15, Complete worm, ventral view; 16, haptoral sucker; 17, haptoral

languette; 18, cirrus.

Fig. 19.—Pedocotyle morone, complete worm, dorsal view.

Fes. 15, 1943

Type species.—Cyclobothrium sessilis (Goto,
1894) Cerfontaine, 1895.

This genus comprises Cyclobothrium iniistri
Yamaguti (1937), from Intistius dea; C. semi-
cossyphi Yamaguti (1938), from Semicossyphus
reticulatus; and C’. sessilis (Goto, 1894), from
Choerops japonicus and Semicossyphus reticu-
latus; all three species are from Japanese hosts.

Genus Heterobothrium Cerfontaine, 1895

Synonym.—Diclidophora Diesing, of Goto,
T894, in part.

Diagnosis.—Haptor separated from body
proper by a long slender isthmus: suckers ses-
sile, framework of anterior pair orientated in-
versely with respect to that of posterior three
pairs. Genital atrium nonmuscular, cirrus
armed; testes postovarial. Vaginae absent;
vitellaria not extending into haptor.

Type species.— Heterobothrium
(Goto, 1894) Cerfontaine, 1895.

The type and only species of this genus was
obtained from the gills of Tetrodon sp. in Japan;
it is not known to occur on North American
hosts.

tetrodonis

Neoheterobothrium, n. gen.

Diagnosis—Haptor separated from body
proper by a long slender isthmus; suckers
pedunculated, with framework of all pairs
orientated in same manner. Other characters
as in Heterobothrium.

Type species.— Neoheterobothrium affine (Lin-
ton, 1898), n. comb. .

The species referable to this genus are Neo-
heterobothrium affine (Linton, 1898) from Para-
lichthys dentatus and N. cynosciont (MacCal-
lum, 1917), n. comb., from Cynoscion regalis,
both from North America; and possibly Octo-
bothrium leptogaster (F. 8S. Leuckart, 1830)
(=N. leptogaster (F. S. Leuckart, 1830), n.
comb.) from Chimaera monstrosa in Europe.

Neoheterobothrium affine (Linton, 1898),

n. comb.
Figs. 11-14
Synonyms—Octoplectanum affine Linton,
1898; Diclidophora affinis (Linton, 1898)
Linton, 1901; Choricotyle affine (Linton,

1898) Llewellyn, 1941.

Description.—Body elongate, 11 to 20 mm
long by 2 to 3 mm wide, divided into three
parts, namely, body proper, isthmus and hap-

PRICE: NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES ol

tor. Anterior haptor consisting of a pair of
suckers 120 to 170y in diameter, opening into
oral cavity. Posterior haptor 2 to 3 mm. in
diameter, consisting of 8 digitate appendages
bearing suckers 425 to 510u in diameter sup-
ported by a heavily cuticularized framework
as shown in Fig. 12. Between peduncles of
posterior pair of suckers is a small projection
or “languette,’’ about 50u long by 25u wide,
apparently bearing two pairs of hooks (hooks
missing but insertions clearly visible). Oral
aperture subterminal; pharynx piriform, 170
to 180u long by 110 to 170u wide; intestinal
branches with prominent lateral diverticula as
far back as isthmus, then without diverticula,
extending into haptor. Genital aperture me-
dian, about 510 to 680u from anterior end of
body; cirrus armed with a circle of incurved
hooks, 12 to 16 in number, each about 20u
long. Testes numerous, number not ascertain-
able, postovarial, in median field. Ovary
folded, median, approximately in equatorial
region of preisthmian portion of body. Vitelline
follicles extending from a short distance pos-
terior to level of genital aperture to distal part
of preisthmian portion of body. Seminal recep-
tacle and genitointestinal canal not observed.
Egg about 150u long by 57y wide, with pro-
longation at each pole.

Host.—Paralichthys dentatus (Linnaeus) and
P. lethostigmus Jordan and Gilbert.

Location.—Mouth.

Distribution.— United States (Woods Hole,
Mass., and Grand Island Region, La.).

Spectmens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll.
4876 (type), 4875, and 8156.

The redescription of this species as given
here is based on toto mounts of the type and
other specimens described from Woods Hole,
Mass., by Linton (1898; 1901; 1940). The prep-
arations were not very good and some de-
tails could not be made out. Melugin (1940) has
reported this species from Louisiana.

Neoheterobothrium affine resembles Octobo-
thrium leptogaster (F.S. Leuckart) [ = Neohetero-
bothrium leptogaster (F. S. Leuckart)] as de-
scribed by Olsson (1876) and by Parona and
Perugia (1892) in possessing a long, slender
isthmus between body proper and haptor. The
two species are also similar in that both possess
a hook-bearing lobe or “‘languette’”’ between the
peduncles of the posterior pair of haptoral

Nos.

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

suckers (see Ruszkowski, 1934, for description
of the hooks of O. leptogaster). The presence of
a “Janguette”’ in these species may not be of
especial significance, however, as many of the
members of the family Diclidophoridae possess
this structure. In spite of obvious similarities
there is little likelihood of the two species being
identical because of their host affinities, there
being an extraordinary host specificity among
the Monogenea.

Neoheterobothrium cynoscioni
(MacCallum, 1917), n. comb.
Figs. 15-18

Synonyms.— Diclidophoracynosciont MacCal-
lum, 1917; Choricotyle cynoscioni (MacCallum,
1917) Llewellyn, 1941.

Description.—Body elongate, 7 to 10 mm
long by 400 to 616u wide, attenuated poste-
riorly. Anterior haptor in form of a pair of
suckers 120u in diameter opening into oral
cavity. Posterior haptor somewhat palmate,
about 640u long, with four pairs of peduncu-
lated suckers, and with small, flaplike lobe
bearing two pairs of hooks between peduncles
of last pair of suckers; suckers about 288u in
diameter, with heavily cuticularized framework
as shown in Fig. 16; posterior lobe 120yu long
by 72u wide, outer hooks 12u long and inner
hooks 28 to 30u long. Oral aperture subter-
minal; pharynx piriform, 120u long by 80y
wide; esophagus and intestinal branches not
traceable in available specimens. Genital aper-
ture median, about 430 to 460u from anterior
end of body. Cirrus 48 to 50u in diameter,
armed with eight hooks. Testes 28 to 30 in
number, relatively large, occupying median
field posterior to ovary. Ovary tubular, folded,
median, about one-third of body length from
anterior end. Vitelline follicles extending from
level of genital aperture to about midway be-
tween level of last testis and anterior margin of
haptor. Seminal receptacle oval, relatively vo-
luminous, posterior to ovary and slightly to
right of median line. Genitointestinal canal and
vagina not observable. No eggs present.

Host.—Cynoscion regalis (Bloch and Schnei-
der).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.—United States (Woods fiole!
Mass.).

Specumens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll.
35592 (type) and 35593.

Nos.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

The type specimen of this species is greatly
elongated and somewhat mutilated; it was col-
lected by the late Dr. G. A. MacCallum August
26, 1914. Three additional specimens are avail-
able, collected by MacCallum July 2, 1924;
these are in much better condition than the
type, and the greater part of the above de-
scription is based upon these specimens. In the
type specimen the small lobe or ‘languette”’
at the posterior end of the haptor was folded
over one of the peduncles and was not observed
by MacCallum.

Cyclocotyloides, n. gen.

Diagnosis.—Haptoral suckers pedunculated.
Genital atrium strongly muscular; cirrus un-
armed; otherwise similar to Cyciocotyla.

Type species.—Cyclocotyloides pinguis (Lin-
ton, 1940), n. comb.

Only one species, the type, is referable to
this genus. C. pinguts was described by Linton
(1940) as Diclidophora pinguis and was based
on specimens from the mouth of Albatrossia
pectoralis. The specimens available to the writer
were fragmentary and nothing can be added to
the original description. The absence of clamp-
like haptoral suckers excludes this species from
the genus Diclidophora and the presence of a
muscular genital atrium and the absence of an
armed cirrus exclude it from other genera of
the Cyclocotylinae.

Genus Diclidophoropsis Gallien, 1937

Diagnosis.—Haptoral suckers pedunculated.
Genital atrium nonmuscular; cirrus armed;
testes postovarial. Vaginae present; vitellaria
extending into haptor.

Type Ree tissiert Gal-
lien, 1937.

The type and only species was described by
Gallien (1937) from specimens collected on
Macrurus laevis in the Atlantic Ocean south of
Ireland.

Genus Pedocotyle MacCallum, 1913

Synonym.—Podocotyle MacCallum, 1913, not
Dujardin, 1845.

Diagnosis.—Haptor linguiform, not distinct
from body proper, bearing three pairs of pe-
dunculated suckers at anterior end of haptor and
one pair of smaller sessile suckers near posterior
end. Testes postovarial. Wager extending
into haptor.

Fes. 15, 1943 PRICE:
Type species—Pedocotyle morone MacCal-
lum, 1913.

Pedocotyle morone MacCallum, 1913
Fig. 19

Synonym.—Podocotyle morone MacCallum,
1918.

Description.—Body slender, 5.9 mm long by
500u wide, apparently flat and ribbonlike, sides
parallel. Anterior haptor in form of two angers,
115u in diameter, opening into mouth cavity.
Posterior haptor linguiform, not distinguish-
able from body proper, with 3 pairs of peduncu-
lated suckers at its anterior end and one pair of
smaller sessile suckers near posterior end. An-
terior pedunculated suckers 228y in diameter,
with heavily cuticularized supporting structure
similar to that in Neoheterobothrium cynosciont
(see Fig. 16); peduncles about 228y long by
1804 in diameter; suckers of posterior pair
about 76y in diameter, apparently of the same
structure as those of anterior pairs (crushed in
type specimen). Mouth terminal; pharynx piri-
form, 150u long by 83u wide; esophagus and
intestine not discernible in available specimen.
Genital aperture median, about 375u from
anterior end of body. Cirrus muscular, 57y in
diameter, armed with 10 inwardly curved
hooks. Testes 14 in number, about 115y in
diameter, in median field between ovary and
anterior end of haptor. Ovary tubular, folded,
median. Vitelline follicles occupying greater
part of body from level of genital aperture to
near posterior end of haptor. Seminal recep-
tacle small, posterior to ovary and to right of
median line. Genitointestinal canal and vagina
not observed. Odtype prominent, surrounded
by numerous unicellular glands. No eggs in
available specimen.

Host.—Morone americana (Gmelin).

Location.—Gills.

Distribution.— United States (New York).

Specimen.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 35594
(type).

This species, based on a single specimen and
originally described by MacCallum (1913a;
1913b), is peculiar in the arrangement of the
suckers of the posterior haptor; because of its
unique appearance, further comment as to its
differentiation from related forms is unneces-
sary.

NORTH AMERICAN MONOGENETIC TREMATODES 53

DICLIDOPHORIDAE OF UNCERTAIN POSITION
Genus Platycotyle Beneden and Hesse, 1863

Diagnosis.—Haptor rectangular, bearing four
widely separated pedunculated suckers; ter-
minal hooks absent.

Type species—Platycotyle gurnardi Beneden
and Hesse, 1863.

The type and only species of the genus is
known only from the very inadequate descrip-
tion given by Beneden and Hesse (1863); this
worm was collected from the gills of Trigla
gurnardus in Europe.

LITERATURE CITED

VAN BENEDEN, PIERRE JOSEPH, and Hxusss, C.
EK. Recherches sur les bdellodes (hirudinées)
et les trématodes marins. Mem. Acad. Roy.
Sci. Belgique 34: 1-142. 1863.

CERFONTAINE, Pauu. Le genre Dactylocotyle.
Bull. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belgique 65 (ser. 3,
29): 918-946. 1895.

Coopzr, A. R. Trematodes from marine and
fresh- water fishes, including one species of
ectoparasitic turbellarian. Trans. Roy Soc.
Canada (sec. 4, ser. 3) 9: 181-205. 1915.

DaLyELL, JOHN GRAHAM. The powers of the

Creator displayed in creation....2: xili
+359 pp. London. 1858.
Disesine, Kart Morirz. Systema helminthum

1: xii+679 pp. Vindobonae. 1850.

DouuFrus, Ropert PH. Cyclobothrium char-
coti n. sp. Trematode ectoparasite sur Mei-
nertia oestroides (Risso). Parasites recueillis
pendant la croistére océanographique du
‘‘Pourquoi-pas?”’ sous le commandement du
Dr. J. B. Charcot, en 1914. Bull. Soc. Zool.
France 47: 287-296. 1922a.

. Complément a la description de Cyclo-

bothrium charcoti mihi. Bull. Soc. Zool.
France 47: 348-352. 1922b.

GALLIEN, Louis. Recherches sur quelques tré-
matodes monogénéses nouveaux ou peu con-
nus. Ann. Parasitol. 15(1): 9-28; (2): 146—
154. 1937.

Goto, Srrraro. Studies on the ectoparasitic
trematodes of Japan. Journ. Coll. Sci., Imp.
Univ., Tokyo, 8: 1-273. 1894.

IsHil, Nospuraro. Some new ectoparasitic
trematodes of marine fishes. Zool. Mag.,
Tokyo, 48: 781-790. 1936.

and SAWADA, TosHISADA. Studies on

the ectoparasttic trematodes. In Livro Jubilar
Prof. Travassos, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil,
pp. 281-244. 1988.

KrgyYER, Henprik. Danmark’s Fiske 1: cii
+616 pp. Kjgbenhavn. 1838-40.

Linton, Epwin. Notes on trematode parasites
of fishes. Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 20: 507-
548. 1898.

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

. Fish parasites collected at Woods Hole

in 1898: pp. 267-304. Washington. 1900.

Parasites of fishes of the Woods Hole

Region: pp. 405-492. Washington. 1901.

Parasites of fishes of Beaufort, North

Carolina. Bull. Bur. Fish. 24 (for 1904):

321-428. 1905.

Trematodes from fishes mainly from
the Woods Hole Region, Massachusetts.
Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 88: 1-172. 1940.

LLEWELLYN, J. A review of the monogenean
family Diclidophoridae Fuhrmann, 1928.
Parasitology 33: 416-430. 1941.

MacCauuium, G. A. Notes on four trematode
parasites of marine fishes. Centralb. Bak-

_teriol. (Abt. 1) 70: 407-416. 1913a.

. Corrigendum to notes on four trematode

parasites of marine fishes. Centralb. Bak-

teriol. (Abt. 1) 72: 256. 1918b.

. Some new forms of parasitic worms.
Zoopathologica 1:(48)—75. 1917.

MANTER, HarotpD WInFRED. Some North
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MELUGIN, JANE. Studies on marine fish trema-
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new ser. 1): 89. 1940.

MeEsERVE, FRANKG. Some meonoronaiie trema-
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ZOOLOGY.—Notes on Mexican urocoptid mollusks.

National Museum.

The preparation of a monograph on the
Cuban land mollusks of the family Uro-
coptidae by Dr. Carlos de la Torre and my-
self has made it necessary to subject the
entire family to a critical overhauling. This
has brought to light considerable misunder-
standing on the part of the older authors,

1 Published by permission of the Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution. Received October
16, 1942.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Parona, C., and Prrueia, A. Note sopra
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PRICE, Emmett W. North American mono-
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_ North American monogenetic trema-

todes. II. The families Monocotylidae, Mi-

crobothriidae, Acanthocotylidae and Udonel-

lidae (Capsaloidea). Journ. Washington

Acad. Sci. 28(3): 109-126: (4): 183-198.

19388.

. North American monogenetic trematodes

IIT. The family Capsalidae (Capsaloidea).

Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 29: 63-92. .

1939a.

. North American monogenetic trema-

todes. 1V. The family Polystomatidae (Poly-

stomatoidea). Proc. Helminth. Soc. Wash-
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. North American monogenetic trema-
todes. V. The family Hexabothriidae, n. n.

~ (Polystomatoidea). Proc. Helminth. Soe.
Washington 9: 39-56. 1942.

RuszkowskI, J. 8. Sur les vers parasites des
chiméres. Ann. Parasitol. 12: 482-491.
1934.

Scorr, Tuomas. Notes on some parasites of
fishes. 19th Ann. Rep. Fishery Board Scot-
land (1900), pt. 3: 120-153. 1901.

STAFFORD, J. T'rematodes fram Canadian fishes.
Zool. Anz. 27: 481-495. 1904.

Stites, CH. WARDELL, and Hassauu, ALBERT.
Index-catalogue of medical and veterinary
zoology. Subjects: Trematoda and trematode

diseases. Hyg. Lab. Bull. 37: 401 pp.
1908.
YamaGutTl, Satyu. Studies on the helminth

fauna of Japan. Part 19. Fourteen new ecto-
parasitic trematodes of fishes. 1-28 pp.
Tokyo, 1937.

Studies on the helminth fauna o
Japan. Part 24. Trematodes of shes
Jap. Journ. Zool. 8: 15-74. 1938

Paut Bartscu, U. 8.

due largely to the fact that at the time when
they were working little was known of the
anatomy and structure of the columella, the
lamellation of the interior shell, and even
less of the circumscribed ecologic conditions
under which these animals exist. Today
some of the deficiencies have been met, more
or less, and the mass of material available
for study furnishes a clearer viewpoint, and
the results of the revisional work show a

Fes. 15, 1943

consistent zoogeographic pattern. For the
new species here described I am indebted
largely to the energetic efforts of Miss
Marie E. Bourgeois.

Genus Bostrichocentrum Strebel

Bostrichocentrum Strebel, Beitr. Kentn. Fauna
Mexico, pt. 4: 80. 1880.

Type: Bostrichocentrum tryont Pfeiffer.

This group appears confined to central Mexi-
co. The known species are listed with their type
— localities:
tamaulipense Bartsch: Camargo, Tamaulipas
hidalgoensis Bartsch: Bonanza, Zimapan, Hi-

dalgo
veracruziana Dall: Misantla, Veracruz
veracruzicolum, n. sp.: Veracruz
ronzoni, n. sp.: Pajaro Verde, Puebla
pilsbryi Dall: City of Puebla, Puebla |
tryont Pfeiffer: Matamoros de Izucar, Puebla
eurybia Bartsch: Near Rio Balsas, Guerrero
galathea Bartsch: Near Rio Balsas, Guerrero
goldmant Bartsch: Tamazulapan, Oaxaca
gealer H. Adams: Putla, Oaxaca

B. hogeana von Martens, Maltrata, Veracruz,
is doubtfully referred here.

Bostrichocentrum veracruzicolum, n. sp.
Fig. 4

_ Shell cylindroconic, flesh colored with the
nucieus and the early postnuclear whorls pale
horn colored. The nucleus consists of 2.7 turns,
which are well rounded, microscopically granu-
lose, and form an obtuse apex. The five post-
nuclear whorls following increase regularly in
size, after which the shell becomes cylindric.
They are marked by retractively curved axial
riblets, which gradually become less strongly
developed and on the cylindric portion are
merely indicated as incremental lines: The post-
nuclear whorls on the conic portion are well
rounded, while the later turns are almost flat-
tened. The suture is well constricted. The last
whorl is short, narrowly umbilicate, with well-
rounded base crossed by axial riblets, which are
irergular in their development, size, and spac-
ing. The last whorl is usually solute, though at
times adnate to the parietal wall. The solute
portion rarely extends over one-tenth of a turn.
The aperture is very broadly pear shaped, the
narrow portion being at the posterior angle.
The peristome is moderately expanded and re-
flected. The columella is hollow and bears a
strong fold a little posterior to the basal wall on

BARTSCH: MEXICAN UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS 55

the penultimate whorl, which fades out on the
turn preceding it.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536877, was received
from Miss Bourgeois, who states that it was
collected in the neighborhood of Orizaba or
Cordoba, or a little farther south, in the state of
Veracruz. It has 12.8 whorls and measures:
height, 12 mm; diameter, 2.9 mm. U.S.N.M.
536878 contains two topotypes, and another
topotype is in the collection of Miss Bourgeois.

In type of sculpture this species resembles
B. pilsbryt but is easily differentiated by its
much smaller size and less elongate form.

Bostrichocentrum ronzoni, n. sp.
Fig. 3

Shell small, pupiform, white, with the nu-
clear whorls horn colored. The nuclear turns
and the first four postnuclear whorls increase
regularly in size to form a conic apex. The rest
of the shell is cylindric, the last whorl being
slightly contracted. The nucleus consists of 2
turns, which are strongly rounded and minutely
granulose. The postnuclear whorls are marked
by numerous closely spaced, well-developed,
axial riblets, which are separated by intercostal
spaces that vary from mere impressed lines to
equal the width of the ribs. Beginning with the
middle of the cylindric portion, the axial ribs
become stronger and more distantly spaced,
reaching their greatest width on the last turn.
All the postnuclear whorls are well rounded.
Suture well impressed. Periphery of the last
whorl well rounded. Base short, well rounded,
narrowly openly umbilicated, and marked by
the continuation of the axial ribs. Aperture sub-
ovate; peristome slightly expanded and re-
flected, usually adnate on the parietal wall to
the preceding turn though at times slightly
solute. The columella is hollow and bears a
fold a little above the basal wall which is very
strong in the penultimate whorl and extends
feebly throughout the rest of the spire. The
columella shows retractively curved incre-
mental lines.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536874, was received
from Miss Bourgeois and was collected by Dr.
M. del Campo at Pajaro Verde, Puebla. It has
12.2 whorls and measures: height, 10.1 mm;
diameter, 3.9 mm. U.S.N.M. 536875 contains
two topotypes and an additional topotype is in
Miss Bourgeois’s collection. U.S.N.M. 536876
contains five additional specimens, which are

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

said to have come from either Cordoba or
Orizaba, the exact locality being not definitely
known. An additional specimen from this lot
also isin Miss Bourgeois’s collection.

This species in sculpture resembles B. tryont
but can readily be distinguished by its much
smaller size. It has much finer sculpture than
B. eurybia and stronger sculpture than B.
galathea.

Genus Haplocion Pilsbry

Haplocion Pilsbry, Man. Conch. 15: 89. 1902.
Type: Holospira pasonis Dall.
The known species, with their type localities,

are:
bryantwalkerit Pilsbry: Rio-Conchos near Rio

Grande, Chihuahua
semisculpta Stearns: San Carlos Cafion, Chi-
huahua

townsendi Bartsch: Cerro Chilicote, Chihuahua
coahuilensis Binney: Cienega Grande, Coahuila
minima von Martens: Hermosillo, Sonora
remondt Gabb: Valle de Sahuaripa, Sonora
guaymasensis, n. sp.: Guaymas, Sonora
percostata Pilsbry: Sonora
mazatlanica, n. sp.: Mazatlan, Sinaloa
mathewsont Bartsch: D. F. Mexico,
mariae Bartsch: Ixtapan de la Sal, Mexico.
campot, n. sp.: Las Grutas, Guerrero
bartscht Pilsbry & Cockerell: Balsas, Guerrero
fusca von Martens: Omilteme, Guerrero
pasonis Dall: El Paso, Texas
mesolia Pilsbry: Sanderson, Texas
tantalus Bartsch: Arizona or New Mexico

Haplocion guaymasensis, n. sp.
Fig. 1

Shell elongate-pupiform, flesh colored. The
nucleus consists of 2.5 well-rounded, micro-
scopically granulose turns. These, combined
with the first four postnuclear whorls, form a
conic apex. The remaining turns are cylindric.
The postnuclear whorls are well rounded and
crossed by decidedly retractively slanting axial
ribs, which are separated by spaces double the
width of the ribs or even wider. Suture strongly
constricted. The last two turns are inflated and
strongly rounded. Base short, strongly rounded,
openly umbilicated and marked by the weak
continuation of the axial ribs. The last whorl
is solute for about one-tenth of a turn. Aperture
subcircular; peristome broadly expanded and
reflected. The columella is rather broad and
hollow and smooth.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536883, was collected
by Miss M. E. Bourgeois near the beach at

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Guaymas, Sonora. It has 13 whorls and meas-
ures: height, 12 mm; diameter, 4 mm. U.S.N.M.
522967 contains two topotypes.

This species resembles most nearly Haplocion
mazatlanica but differs in being stouter and in
having the whorls much less rounded and the
axial ribs more distantly spaced.

Haplocion mazatlanica, n. sp.
Fig. 6

Shell small, cylindroconic, pale horn colored.
The nucleus consists of 2.5 well-rounded granu-
lose turns. The postnuclear whorls are decidedly
inflated, strongly rounded, and marked by
somewhat sinuous, retractively curved axial
ribs, which are almost as wide as the spaces
that separate them. Suture very strongly con-
stricted. The last whorl is short. Base short,
strongly rounded, narrowly openly umbilicated,
and marked by the continuation of the axial
ribs. Aperture subcircular; peristome broadly
expanded, widest on the inner lip and parietal
wall. Columella moderately stout, hollow with
a slight twist in the later whorls.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536884, was collected
by C. R. Orcutt at Mazatlan. It has 14 whorls
and measures: height, 13.5 mm; diameter, 4.1
mm. U.S.N.M. 381625 contains four topotypes.

This species resembles most nearly Haplocion
guaymasensis but differs from it in being
slenderer and having the whorls much more in-
flated and the axial ribs more closely spaced.

Haplocion campoi, n. sp.
Fig. 7

Shell cylindroconic, pale horn colored with
the interior of the aperture pale brown. The
nucleus consists of 2.5 well-rounded whorls, of
which the last half of the first is wider than the
rest of the turns. They are minutely granulose.
Beginning with the sixth postnuclear whorl the
shell assumes a cylindric form. All the whorls
are almost flattened, well rounded, and marked
by retractively curved, well-rounded, strongly
developed axial ribs, which are about as wide
as the spaces that separate them on the early
turns, but a little less wide on the later whorls.
Suture strongly constricted. The last whorl is
somewhat attentuated and rather long. The
base is short and rimate at the umbilicus and
crossed by the continuation of the axial ribs.
The last whorl is solute for about one-eighth of
a turn. Aperture subequal; peristome moder-

‘Fes. 15, 1948 BARTSCH: MEXICAN UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS

SSS

PORES

Figs. 1-7.—New species of Mexican urocoptid mollusks: 1, Haplocion guaymasensis ;
2, Coelostemma presidioensis ; 3, Bostrichocentrum ronzont, 4, Bostrichocentrum veracruzicolum;

5, Coelostemma antricola; 6, Haplocion mazatlanica; 7, Haplocion campot.
(All figures X6)

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ately expanded and reflected. Columella slender
and almost solid in the later whorls, but more
hollow in the earlier turns, almost straight.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536880, has 15 whorls
and measures: height, 17 mm; diameter, 4.6
mm. It was collected by Dr. Martin del Campo
at Las Grutas, Cacahuamilpa, (Guerrero.
U.S.N.M. 536881 contains nine topotypes.
U.S.N.M. 536882 contains four additional topo-
types collected by Miss M. E. Bourgeois.

This species in the inflation of the whorls re-
sembles Haplocion mariae Bartsch but differs
from it in being much larger and in having the
ribs more closely spaced.

Genus Coelostemma Dall

Coelostemma Dall, Nautilus 9: 50. 1895.
Type: Holospira elizabethae Pilsbry.
Following are the known species, with their

type localities:

dallz Pilsbry: Sierra Guadelupe, Coahuila

strebeliana Pilsbry: Sierra Guadelupe, Coahuila

lichenophora Dall: Encarnacion, Hidalgo

bourgeoisiana Bartsch: Ixtapan de la Sal,
Mexico

antricola, n. sp.: Las Grutas, Guerrero

igualaensis Bartsch: Iguala, Guerrero

balsasensis Bartsch: Rio Balsas, Guerrero

adria Bartsch: Rio Balsas, Guerrero

adana Bartsch: Rio Balsas, Guerrero

elizabethae Pilsbry: Amula, Guerrero

herrerae Bartsch: Silacayoapan, Oaxaca

presidioensis, n. sp: Presidio, Veracruz

The following species whose columellar struc-
ture is unknown are doubtfully placed here:

cretacea Pfeiffer: Mexico, without specific
locality

microstoma Pfeiffer: Mexico, without specific
locality

imbricata von Martens: Mexico, without specific
locality

teres Menke: Puebla
teres var. B Crosse & Fischer: Puebla

Coelostemma antricola, n. sp.
Fig. 5

Shell elongate-cylindroconic, with the nu-
cleus and the early post-nuclear whorls horn
colored, the rest flesh colored. The nucleus con-
sists of 2.5 well-rounded, minutely granulose
whorls. The succeeding seven turns increase
rapidly in size to form a conic apex. The rest
of the shell is cylindric, but the whorls become
slightly contracted from the broadest expansion
at the junction of the cylindric portion and the

VOL. 33, NO. 2

conic part anteriorly. The conic part and the
last whorl are marked by strong, rather dis-
tantly spaced axial ribs. Here these are only
about half as wide as the spaces that separate
them and they develop slight nodules at the
slightly overhanging portion of the turns at
the suture. On the cylindric portion the axial
ribs become much finer and more closely spaced.
Suture moderately strongly constricted. The
last whorl is somewhat prolonged, slightly
angulated at the periphery. Base short, slightly
rounded, rimate at the umbilicus, and marked
by the continuation of the axial ribs. The last
whorl is solute for about one-fifth of a turn.
Aperture subtriangular; peristome moderately
expanded and reflected. The columella is very
broad, widest in the later part of the conical
portion of the shell, hollow, and marked by
slender, retractively curved, axial riblets.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536885, was collected
at the base of a limestone boulder in a ravine
near Las Grutas, Cacahuamilpa, Guerrero. It
has 18.3 whorls and measures: height, 21.1
mm; diameter, 5.6. mm. A topotype is in Miss
Bourgeois’s collection.

This species recalls Coleostemma bourgeoistana
but is much larger and much more cylindric.

Coelostemma presidioensis, n. sp.
Fig. 2

Shell small, pupoid, pale horn colored, the
later whorls flesh colored, which is also the
color of the interior of the aperture. The nucleus
consists of 2 well-rounded, microscopically
granulose whorls. The nucleus, plus the suc-
ceeding five turns, complete the conic spire, the
remaining turns being more or less cylindric,
contracting slightly toward the base. All the
whorls are moderately well rounded. On the
conic portion they are covered by rather strong,
distantly spaced ribs, which are only about one-
half to one-third as wide as the spaces that
separate them. On the central part of the
cylindric portion the ribs become much finer
and more closely spaced. On the penultimate
whorl they are almost obsolete, while on the
last whorl they are again very strong and very
distantly spaced, the intercostal spaces being at.
least four times the width of the ribs. Suture
very strongly constricted. Base very short,
narrowly umbilicated, and marked by the
strong continuation of the ribs which extend
over the umbilicus. Aperture subtriangular;

Fes. 15, 1943

peristome moderately expanded, reflected, and
thickened. The columella is stout, almost one-
fourth the width of the interior of the whorls,
and crossed by slender, slightly retractively
curved axial ribs.

The type, U.S.N.M. 536886, was collected by
Miss M. E. Bourgeois at Presidio, Veracruz. It

SCHULTZ: TWO MARINE FISHES NEW TO ALASKA 59

has 13 whorls and measures: height, 12 mm;
diameter, 5 mm.

The small form and pupoid shape will dif-
ferentiate this from all other species except pos-
sibly Coelostemma imbricata von Martens, in
which the middle whorls are not cylindric.

ICHTHYOLOGY .—Two marine fishes new to the fauna of Alaska, with notes on

another species.'

Recently in identifying a collection of
fishes taken in Alaskan waters by Dr.
Waldo L. Schmitt, two of the species
proved to be new to the known fauna of
Alaska and of North America. Additional
information is given on another species.

Sebastodes polyspinis Taranetz and
- Moiseev
Fig. 1

Sebastodes polyspinis Taranetz and Moiseev,

| wm Taranetz, Vestnik dv. Eiliala Akad.
Nauk SSSR no. 1-3: 69. 1933; Taranetz,
Bull. Pacific Sci. Inst. Fish. Oceanog., 2:
94. 1937.

The discovery of six specimens of Sebastodes
in Schmitt’s collection with XIV dorsal spines
all belonging to the same species was a surprise,
because among the hundreds of specimens of
this group examined from the American side of
the North Pacific, all have had XIII dorsal
spines. From time to time species of Sebastodes
have been reported from the Asiatic side of
the North Pacific Ocean with XIV spines, but
these specimens are thought to be the first re-
corded from Alaska. My studies indicate that
the Alaskan specimens belong to the species
Sebastodes polyspinis. Although there are some
minor differences, such as in color, it is thought
best not to describe them as a new form with-
out first making direct comparisons with the
types of S. polyspinis, which is not now possible
because of the war.

The following key was prepared from the
available specimens and literature, and by
means of it one should be able to identify the
North Pacific species of Sebastodes with XIV

1 Published by permission of Secretary of the

Be eenion Institution. Received September 5,

Lronarp P. Scuuutz, U. 8. National Museum.

dorsal spines that have a flattish to convex

interorbital space.

la. Tubes in the lateral line 44 or fewer.

2a. Lateral line tubes 35; vertical scale rows
from upper edge of gill opening to base of
caudal fin about 65; scales above lateral
line at base of first soft ray of dorsal 6
and below lateral line at origin of anal 16;
mandible scaly; pectoral rays 16, lower
8 unbranched and swollen; anal rays III,
8; dorsal XIV, 13; interorbital a little
convex; nasal and preocular spines pres-
ent; parietal, postocular, and nuchal
with weak spine; color reddish, marked
with about 5 indefinite dark saddles
along the back; peritoneum black; mouth
cavity and gill cavities dusky; Japan...
Sebastodes owstoni Jordan and Thomp-
son?

2b. Tubes in lateral line 40; mandible probably
naked; pectoral rays 17; anal III, 10;
dorsal XIV, 15; interorbital space flat;
nasal and parietal spines strong; pre-
ocular, supraocular and postocular very
weak; tympanic, coronal and nuchal ab-
sent; color red, no spots. Southeast coast
of Siberia... .Sebastodes pavlenkot Wales?

16. Tubes in lateral line 45 or more.

3a. Tubes in lateral line about 63; vertical
rows of scales above lateral line about
115; scales above lateral line 11 or 12
and 17 below; pectoral rays 19, 9 lower
ones unbranched; anal III, 7; dorsal

- XIV, 138; gill rakers 12+27; mandible
scaly; interorbital convex; nasal spine
small but sharp; other cranial spines
absent; peritoneum black; color brown-
ish, top of head and upper sides
clouded with dusky; lateral line run-

2 Sebastodes owstont Jordan and Thompson,
Mem. Carnegie Mus. 6 (4): 270, pl. 31, fig. 3.
1914; Jordan and Hubbs, Mem. Carnegie Mus.
10(2): 260, 1925; Scumipt, P. J., Trans. Pacific
Committee Acad. Sci. USSR 2: 94. 1931.

3 Sebastodes ruber Pavlenko, Fishes Peter the
Great Bay, Trd. Obsc. Test. Kanzani, p. 42. 1910
(name preoccupied); Sebastodes pavlenkot Wales,
Copeia, No. 1, p. 10. 1980 (new name).

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ning in a conspicuous light streak;
upper part of opercles with a black
spot. Japan... Sebastodes itinus Jor-
dan and Starks4
3b. Tubes in lateral line 45 to 50; vertical
scale rows 85 to 100; gill rakers on first
gill arch 10 to 12 +26 or 27; peritoneum
black; interorbital convex; nasal spines
small but sharp; other cranial spines
absent.
4a. Mandible naked; vertical scale rows
about 100 (these data based on a
specimen, U.S.N.M. no. 102454,
from Okhotsk Sea); pectoral rays
19, lower 10 or 11 unbranched; anal
rays III, 8; dorsal rays XIV, 17;
gill rakers about 10+26; black
streak along maxillary; one below
eye, then a white streak, then a
broad blotch behind eye; two
blotches on opercle; an indistinct
blotch or bar below spiny dorsal and
another below soft dorsal. Asiatic
side Bering Sea. . . Sebastodes glau-
cus (Hilgendorf)5
4b. Mandible scaly; vertical rows 88 to 91;
pectoral rays 18, lower 8 or 9 un-
branched; anal rays III, 7 or 8;
dorsal XIV, 14 or 15; lips of lower
jaw dusky; a blackish streak along
lower part of maxillary; another
oblique black streak from under eye
across preopercle, a pale one above
and behind eye dusky; opercle with
2 dusky blotches; upper median fins
dusky; body above more or less
coarsely reticulated or marbled with
dusky; mouth and gill cavities with
traces of dusky shades here and
there; base of pectoral with dusky
area; trace of a wide pale band along
upper sides and another along lower
sides, both probably reddish in life.
Bering Sea; Shumagin and Aleu-
tian Islands... Sebastodes poly-
spinis Taranetz and Moiseev

Since the publication by Taranetz (1933:
69-70) is mostly in Russian, I give below a

4 Sebastodes itinus Jordan and Starks, Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 27: 99, fig. 1, 1904. Fig. 1 has but
XIII dorsal spines, but Dr. G. S. Myers informs
me that the type has XIV dorsal spines, and there
are 63 lateral-line tubes instead of 54 as published.

5 Sebastes glaucus Hilgendorf, 8S. B. Ges. Naturf.
Freunde, p. 170. 1880. Although I have not been
able to locate the specimen from Bering Island
reported upon as S. glaucus (by Jordan and Gil-
bert, Rept. U. S. Fur Seal Comm., pt. 3: 447.
1898; Jordan and Evermann, U. S. Nat. Mus.
Bull. 47, pt. 2: 1777, 1898; and Jordan and
Starks, Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 27: 97. 1904), it
probably is not this species but Sebastodes poly-
spinis Taranetz and Moiseev.

VOL. 33, NO. 2

translation (made for me) of the description
of S. polyspinis:

“Description of our specimens: D XIV
(XIII), 138-15; A III, 7-8; gill rakers on the
outside surface of first arch 9-12 +23-26; P 18
(4 fish); tubes in lateral line 48-50 (57?); 28
vertebrae (4 fish) with urostyle.

“The body is covered with ctenoid scales;
accessary scales are missing; the head, except
the gill membranes, is covered with very small
scales; the smallest are situated on the upper
and lower jaws on the brachiostegal rays, and
on the front of the head; ridges on the head are
not developed except the parietals; on the
operculum there are 2 sharp spines: on the pre-
operculum there are blunt spines, two or three
of them are split at the ends; nasal spines
hidden in the skin: base of skull curved; pari-
etals not connected; interorbital space is con-
vex; lower jaw protrudes forward and has a
strong knob on the symphysis.

“The next to the last dorsal spine extends
half way out along the last; the second anal
spine is shorter and thicker than the third one.

‘“‘Color in formalin: Sides of body are dark
without spots; the dorsal part is darker; the
ventral side pale; the edges of the first dorsal
black; peritoneum black; other fish vary from
pale to brown with black spots.

“TD, XIV, 13; A IIL, 8; RP. 18; scilleraers
12 +26; lateral line tubes 48-50. The length of
the head is 107 mm. The length of the body
360 (?); without caudal 305; diameter of eye
21.0; diameter of orbit 25.5; interorbital space
23.1; upper jaw 47.2; lower jaw &9.0; height of
the head 88.3; length of the longest gill raker
14.7; maximum height of the body 110.5;
minimum 25.9; length of pectoral (from the
upper edge of the base to the end of longest ray
when the fin is folded against the body) 80.7;
base of pectoral 29.0; length of pelvic 62.2;
length of base of pelvic 35.9; length of base of
first dorsal 111.5; second dorsal 59.7; length of
base of anal 42.9; height of longest dorsal spine
(fifth) 33.4; height of 13th spine 16.1; of 14th
24.8; length of second anal spine 29.6; length
of third anal spine 29.8

“From other species S.. pavlenkot Wales
(=8S.ruber Pavlenko) differs by the number of
pores in lateral line, by the absence of spines
on the upper part of the head, and in other de-
tails. No other type of Sebastodes has 14 dorsal

Fes. 15, 1943

spines except S. giawcus to which ours is not
related. Our fish differs from S. jordani, S.
goodei, S. paucispinis by the presence of 14

spines in the first dorsal and in the number of -

pores in the lateral line.

“A fish referred to by P. J. Schmidt as S.
ciliatus (S. taczanowskii according to Soldatov
and Lindberg, p. 156, not S. ciliatus Tilesius)
appears to be the same, but because of slight
variations in formulae we can not affirm it con-
clusively as P. J. Schmidt does not check on it
further.

“Distribution: from about Pribilof Islands
to east coast of Kamchatka.”

The data presented in Tables 1 and 2 form
the basis for the identification of the Alaskan
specimens as S. polyspinis, which were col-
lected as follows:

U.S.N.M. no. 119375. Alaska: 22 miles ENE.
Castle Rock, off Big Koniuji Island (Shumagin
Islands), trawl, 95-120 fathoms, October 2, 1940,
1 specimen, 208 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 119379. Alaska: Pavlof Bay,

trawl, 10-30 fathoms, September 25, 1940, 1 spec- —

imen, 117 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 19376. Alaska: King Cove, trawl,
15-22 fathoms, October 16, 1940, 2 specimens,
189 and 144 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 119378. Alaska: Castle Bay,
trawl, 45-60 fathoms, October 29, 1940, 1 speci-
men, 153 mm.

U.S.N.M. no. 119377. Alaska: Olga Bay, trawl,
38-95 fathoms, November 4, 1940, 1 specimen,
145 mm.

SCHULTZ: TWO MARINE FISHES NEW TO ALASKA

TaBLE 1.—Counts AND M£8ASUREMENTS OF SEBASTODES
POLYSPINIS TARANETZ AND Molsexrv. (All measurements
expressed in hundredths of the standard length.)

Types
from Alaskan
Characters Bering Specimens
Sea
iorsal’spinesti sae eee se aXe XIV | XIV
Dorsallsoft raysesss-0905: 442-4: 13-15 14 15
PAA RAY See os Beceat iaysnteas crcl senatens QUE Petey} IU 2/ III, 8
( 9 to 12
Gill rakers first arch........... + 12427 | 11426
23 to 26
Rectoralerays nee ieee ee 18 18-18 18
Unbranched lower pectoral rays. — 9-9 8
Tubes lateral line.............. 48-50 50 48
Vertical scale rows........-.--- — 91 85
Scales above lateral line........ = 11 10
Scales below lateral line........ — 17 16
Standard length in millimeters..| 305 208 117

Diametemotaorbivmen ce seule: 8.38 9.62 9.4
Interorbital space...........-- 7.01 7.69 Doth
Length of maxillaries of upper jaw| 15.4 15.4 15.6
Length of lower jaw.........-- 19.4 17.8 17.5
Longest gill raker.............- 4.82 5.05 ee,
Depth (greatest). .5.....-....- 36.2 BY 7/ OAR
Least depth caudal peduncle.... 8.46 9.13 9.4
Length of pectoral fin.......... 26.4 PA PA 28.6
Length of pelvic fin............ 20.4 20.9 20.1
Length of base first dorsal...... 36.7 BILL ots) Bl 6
Length of base second dorsal....| 19.6 20.7 22.6
Length of base of anal......... AZ 15.8 15.4
Length of longest dorsal spine

(SEM) esos oo ees Paces eee 10.9 12.5 12.8
Length of thirteenth dorsal spine. 5.28 Uo MAil 8.53
Length of fourteenth dorsal spine 8.16 10.1 12.8
Length of second anal spine..... 9.68 bea 12.8
Length of third anal spine...... 9.78 iil fs) aa
Wengethuot neadeneemcrtasercrr — S32 34.2
reorbivalawid theres cesta — 1.68 1.88
Length of caudal peduncle..°... — 20.9 OB oi
Postorbital length of head...... — 15.6 16.2

Taste 2.—Counts REcoRDED For CERTAIN SPECIES OF SEBASTODES wiTH XIV Dorsal SPINES

Fi
a Ae Lower unbranched
Species Soft dorsal Soft anal Pectoral pectoral rays

13 14 15 16 iL7/ Uf 8 9 10 16 17 18 19 8 9 | 10 | iL
polyspinis...| 1 5 1 - - 3 4 - — - - 7 - 1 6 = =
GUQUCUS....--| = _ et tes 1 - 1 — - - - — 2 - - 1 1
MMS .0.---- 1 = — - - 1 - = = = = = 1 1 oe Zs
OWStONUe ee || L = - - - — 1 = = 1 zs cs zt = = ee
pavlenkoi....| — - il - - - = = 1 = 1 a) 2 = ik i a
I US OS Pg ep ee er nD ee le Oe
RII ce

Number of gill rakers on first gill arch
Pe LI TSN STE ce TSN sR cs Sac
Species Above angle |Below angle Total gill rakers Pore in lateral line

io | 11 | 12 | 26 | 27 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 |35-37.38-40/41-43'44-47/48-50'51-53 54-57 58-60 61-63
polyspinis...| 3 2 2 5 2 2 3 iL - - - 4 33 = = = =
QUAUCUS 2: « 1 - — 1 = 1 = as = es = 1 i é. je = es
METIS 66 bed Oe - —- 1 - 1 - = il ee = Ey Eby = = fie 2
owstont...... - - - — = = = wa ES 1 = = a = = es ah wt
pavlenkov....| — - - - - = = zs BS 2 1 es ss a sg = Bs Ae

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 2

Fig. 1.—Sebastodes polyspinis Taranetz and Moiseev. Photograph of an Alaskan specimen.

Eurymen gyrinus Gilbert and Burke

Eurymen gyrinus Gilbert and Burke, Bull.
U. 8. Bur. Fish. 30: 64. 1912 (type,
U.S.N.M. no. 74377, from Avatcha Bay,
east coast Kamchatka); Schmidt, P. J.,
Compt. Rend. (Doklady) _ Acad. Sci.
URSS 15(5) : 279-280. 1937 (see this paper
for synonyms and literature).

Since the two specimens reported here are
probably the first published record of the oc-
currence of this species on the American side of
the North Pacific Ocean, I record in Table 3
data from them.

U.S.N.M. no. 119387, taken in Canoe Bay,
Alaska, September 19-21, 1940, in a gill net at
30-40 fathoms by Dr. W. L. Schmitt.

Triglops metopias Gilbert and Burke

Triglops metopias Gilbert and Burke, Bull. U.S.
Bur. Fish. 30: 50, fig. 8. 1912; Soldatov
and Lindberg, Bull. Pacific Sci. Fish. Inst.
5: 195. 1930; Taranetz, Bull. Pacific Sci.
Inst. Fish. Oceanogr. 11: 109, 110. 1937;
Andriashev, Explor. Mers URSS, Instit.
Hydrolog. Leningrad, fasc. 25: 303, 1937.

Because this species is rare and seldom re-
ported, it was thought best to give here a brief
description.

U.S.N.M. no. 119488, one specimen taken in
Canoe Bay, Alaska, November 4, 1940, by
Dr. W. L. Schmitt.

The following measurements in millimeters
were made on a specimen from Canoe Bay,
Alaska, collected by Dr. W. L. Schmitt,
November 4, 1940: Standard length 107; head

TABLE 3.—CountTs anD MEASUREMENTS ON Two SPECIMENS
or EURYMEN GyRINUS. (Measurements expressed in hun-
dredths of the standard length.)

Specimen
Character SSE
1 2

Standard lencth: ¢ ce ee one 131 140
Headtlength: as25.0-0 ae 42.0 45.4
Hleshy-interorbitaliss +s sae ee 9.93 11.1
Diameter ofveyex, visas eee 7.64 geal
ength ofsnouvees<. 1. eee ee 9.55 slate
Postorbital length of head’... 5) 245 24.4 26.8
Keéngth-ofuppernjiawa ane eee 19.8 20.7
Greatestidepthe: access sor ee 29.8 So iL
beast depth oct we) oe ee eee 6.64 CALS
Length of caudal peduncle........... 8.24 9.86
Mongest ray pectoral ee ee 26.0 26.1
Longest ray, caudals ssh eee 23 22.8
ength basedorsalessee eee ee eee 60.0 SD
Kengthubaserana leew amas lee 29.6 33.5
Dorsalirays: oe se ee ee 31 30

Wah OE) Weel etn a mE mem Run Male Tai ehtie: Meat, hat 16 16
Pectonals sake see ee ee 24. 24
Guillirakersfirstranch yee eee ae 0+8 0+9

32.5; snout 11.1; eye 9.1; interorbital space 3.0
postorbital length of head 12.5; greatest depth
of body 15.2; least depth of caudal peduncle

_ 8.8; length of caudal peduncle 15.5; maxillaries

(tip of snout to rear of maxillary) 15.0; length
of longest (sixth) dorsal spine 12.2; longest soft
dorsal ray 12.8; longest anal ray 11.0; longest
caudal fin ray 18.5; shortest (middle) caudal fin
ray 12.8; longest pectoral fin ray 26.2; longest
pelvic ray 15.2; length of base of soft dorsal
44.5: length of base of anal fin 43.5; snout to
origin of first dorsal 29.7.

The following counts were made: Dorsal X,
26; anal 24; pectoral 20; plates in lateral line
51; gill rakers 0 +7,

Frs. 15, 1943

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 63

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

379TH MEETING OF THE BOARD
OF MANAGERS

The 379th meeting of the Board of Managers
was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on
December 14, 1942. President Curtis called
the meeting to order at 8:07 p.m., with 19
persons present, as follows: H. L. Curtis,
F. D. Rosstn1, N. R. Smiru, W. W. Dieut,
eee Gran HF. H. H. Roperts, Jr., F. G.
BricKWEDDE, H.B. Cou.ins, JRr., F.C. KRacrK,
Ms Serzuer, J. B. Reesipe, Jr., J. E.
~McMorrrey, Jr., W. A. Darron, W. Ram-
Bere, E. W. Pricer, L. W. Parr, C. L. GARNER,
and by invitation G. A. Cooper and A.
SEIDELL.

The minutes of the 378th meeting were read
and approved.

President CurRTIS announced that R. J.
SEEGER (chairman), F. G. BRicKWeppg, R. W.
Brown, G. A. Coorrr, and F. D. Rossin1
would compose the Committee to make recom-
mendations concerning the printing and pub-
lishing of the JouRNAL, and that ALEXANDER
WETMORE would compose the Committee to
investigate the purchase by the U. S. Office of
Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs of
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At a meeting held just preceding the meeting
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mek, Curtis, J. EH. Grar, L. W. Parr, and
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to further the work and usefulness of the
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JOURNAL presented a report carrying the fol-
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duration of the war whenever it decides, with

the approval of the Executive Committee, that
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The Secretary reported two deaths and one
resignation.

The Treasurer presented a report showing
that to date the income of the Academy was
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amount of income for this year estimated in
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The Custodian and Subscription Manager of
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JOURNAL.

The meeting adjourned at 9:39 P.M.

315TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 315th meeting of the Academy was held
jointly with the Anthropological Society of
Washington in the Assembly Hall of the
Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on December 17,
1942, with President Curtis presiding. JULIAN
H. Stewarp, Vice-President of the Anthropo-
logical Society, introduced the speaker.

Matruew W. StTiruinG, Chief of the Bureau
of American Ethnology of the Smithsonian
Institution, delivered an address entitled
Anthropological explorations in Netherlands New
Guinea. Mr. Stirling described how an expedi-
tion of 700 men, sponsored jointly by the
Netherlands Government and the Smithsonian
Institution and operating under his direction,
entered New Guinea from the north by the
Mamberamo River and reached the Snow
Mountains, where an interesting negrito popu-
lation living in a stone-age culture. was dis-
covered and studied. The lecture was illustrated
with moving pictures. About 175 persons were
in attendance.

FREDERICK D. Rossint, Secretary.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Obituary

In THE sudden death of Hmnry Corsin
Futter on August 26, 1942, at New Haven,
Conn., the Academy has lost an active member,
the vice-president of its Biological Section, and
his associates have lost a valued friend. He was
born on November 13, 1879, at Worcester,
Mass., where he also secured his basic chemical
education at the Worcester Polytechnic Insti-
tute. After graduation in 1901 he was engaged
by commercial houses in analyzing drugs and
chemicals used in the production of medicines.
Later he entered as a chemist the U. 8S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture under Dr. Harvey W.
Wiley, whom he referred to as his mentor,
working on problems incident to the Food and
Drug Act of 1906. Collaborating with Dr. Wiley
in his work for Good Housekeeping, Fuller did
much of the analytical work on the articles
discussed in ‘‘1001 tests’? published in 1914.
During the period covered by the World War,
Fuller was in the Institute of Industrial Re-
search of Washington, at the same time super-
vising drug propagation on a commercial scale
and managing a drug farm in Virginia, growing
digitalis and other important medical plants—
1914-19. Although active officially, he found
time to publish three books of note: Medical
preparation, 132 pages, 1912; The chemistry and
analysis of drugs and medicine, 1,072 pages,
1920; The story of drugs, a popular exposition of
their origin, preparation, and commercial im-
portance, 358 pages, 1922. He published also a
number of shorter papers on current chemical
subjects. He was secretary of the Scientific
Section of American Pharmaceutical Associa-
tion, 1917-18. He spent some time in Europe
during 1922 and 1924 on problems concerning
the wine industry of Italy and France.

One of Fuller’s avocations, in which he used
great care and discrimination, was the bringing
together a wonderful collection of stamps, con-
taining 27,000 different forms, which is more
than one-quarter of all the world’s issue. The
United States part is noted for its rare stamps
and for the completeness of its series.

Ornithology also was a pet avocation, and he
never lost an opportunity to observe birds in
their native haunts. Birds are so closely as-

sociated in their habitat with varied and diverse
forms of other life that he who follows them

VOL. 33, NO. 2

a ese 5

_
yy te

Se A eee eee

soon learns that Nature has in store other —

treasures for those interested, and that the
Great Outdoors is a real paradise for those who
delve. This was as Fuller thought. On an oc-
casion, in order to broaden his view of the
wilder country and its animal and plant life,
he made a trip through the West to the Pacific
States and British Columbia with friends who
were familiar with the whole region. Every time
he saw a bird or mammal new to him in life,
he was thrilled by the experience.

As a well-known chemist and nature lover
with his easy and cordial manner of approach,

Fuller had a wide and varied acquaintance, —

especially among kindred spirits whose prob-
lems were similar to his. He was a good court
witness, defending his case with clearly stated
facts, and with a facile tongue effective in either
thrust or parry. He was much interested in the
activities of a debating club that he entertained
at his home, and he took special delight in the
wide variety of subjects that come up from

time to time and the expertness with which

they were handled by real authorities.
Fuller was a man of good breeding, with a

fine sense of honor, strict regard for his obliga- —

tions, and consideration for the rights and feel-
ings of others; hence a gentleman, whom we
shall sorely miss. He had such perfect under-
standing with his children that this close com-
munion with their father always will be among
their most cherished memories.

He was an associate member of the American
Ornithologists’ Union, member of the Washing-
ton Biologists’ Field Club (president), Bio-
logical Society of Washington (president),
Baird Ornithologists Club, Washington Acad-
emy of Sciences, Cosmos Club, American
Chemical Society, American Pharmaceutical
Association, Society of Chemical Industry,
London, and Fellow of the American Institute
of Chemists.

He is survived by his widow; a son, Henry

Shepard Fuller, M.D.; and two daughters, Mrs.
Thomas Watson and Miss Josepha Fuller.
A. K. FISHER.

CONTENTS

OrniTHoLocy.—Two new birds from Morelos, Mexico. Piercu
BRODKORB.. 20. Gass UL a

Enromonoey. —New genera and species of Neotropical bark beetles
(Coleoptera: Scolytidae).. M. W. BLACKMAN.................

EntomoLoGcy.—New species of syrphid flies in the National Museum.
FRA MEG ERS eee Sos ele Mi wietaee Laat cuetbe dss Whi (ick aes ae

ZooLocy.—North American monogenetic trematodes: VI. The family
Diclidophoridae (Diclidophoroidea). Emmetr W. Pricn...:....

ZooLtocy.—Notes on Mexican urocoptid mollusks. Paun BArtscH...

IcHTHyoLocy.—Two marine fishes new to the fauna of Alaska, with

notes on another species. Lronarp P. ScHULTZ...............

PROGEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY). 2s Oe OO a ae PN et 0s Sac eaee as :

OBITUARY : HENRY CORBIN PULLER. 60 ong er i a ee

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Page

ites

Marcu 15, 1943

TON ACy
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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 33

Marcu 15, 1943

No. 3

BOTAN Y.—The travels of Thomas Coulter, 1824-1827. Rocrrs McVauau,

Bureau of Plant Industry.

_ Dr. Thomas Coulter, an Irish botanist?
who lived and traveled in Mexico from 1825
until about 1834, made large collections of
herbarium specimens and less extensive col-
lections of living plants, especially of cacti.
The most detailed published account of
Coulter’s life and work in Mexico is that by
Coville (1895). The Mexican collections
comprised more than 50,000 specimens, ac-
cording to the brief biographical sketch of
Coulter published the year after his death
(Romney Robinson, 1844). The herbarium
specimens were distributed, after Coulter’s
death, from Trinity College in Dublin; be-
fore distribution they were assigned num-
bers according to their supposed systematic
position, the numbers probably totaling
about 1,700. Some of the replicate sets were
distributed to American herbaria, the most
nearly complete ones now being found at
the Gray Herbarium and in the Torrey
Herbarium at the New York Botanical
Garden. All the Coulter specimens in
American herbaria, however, seem to lack
data relative to the time and place of col-
lection, having been distributed under the
numbers assigned at Dublin but without
any other notations. The “‘first set’’ of the
collection, according to Coville, went to the
herbarium at Kew, and many of the speci-
mens were cited, with collection number
and locality, by Hemsley in the botany of
the Biologia Centrali-Americana (1879-
1888). As pointed out by Coville, little has
been published concerning the details of
Coulter’s travels in Mexico, and the speci-
mens cited by Hemsley have remained the
chief source of information on this score.
The present paper contains an account of

1 Received November 21, 1942.
2 Born 17938, died 1843.

(Communicated by B. Y. Morrison.)

the botanist’s itinerary from the time of his
departure from London, in September,
1824, until October, 1827. This account has
been drawn up from Coulter’s own note-
book, lent by his nephew, Joseph A. Coul-
ter, to Dr. F. V. Coville, and now on deposit
in the files of the Division of Plant Ex-
ploration and Introduction, Bureau of
Plant Industry.

Most of the notes taken by Thomas
Coulter in Mexico are those relative to his
observations while traveling; he carried a
compass, sextant, barometer, thermometer,
and two chronometers and recorded all the
details of his instrumental data and his cal-
culations thereon. Although evidently much
interested in the plants and animals he saw,
he did not write of any collections he may
have made but confined himself to brief
notes upon the places he visited and occa-
sional comments upon his experiences. His
entries were made at irregular intervals ex-
cept when he traveled, when he seems to
have been careful to record the movements
of each succeeding day. He was employed
by the Real del Monte Mining Co., and his
travels took him to the several areas in
which they had interests. Landing at Vera-
cruz on January 28, 1825, he went as rapidly
as possible to Real del Monte. After some
months spent there (except for two trips to.
Mexico City) he traveled up the old high-
way to Zacatecas, where he stayed more
than a year, making in the meantime one
trip to the mines at Bolafios, Jalisco. Leav-
ing Zacatecas in January, 1827, Coulter
made his way to the mining district at
Zimapan, Hidalgo, where he made his head-
quarters at least until October of that year.
He seems to have made few collections while
traveling, if one may judge by the numbers

14
{4
AP ~

20 y

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of specimens cited by Hemsley; approxi-
mately 300 numbers are cited from Zima-
pan, nearly 150 from Real del Monte, and
nearly 50 from Zacatecas, but no more than
15 in all from along the routes connecting
these places. This may have been due in
part to the exigencies of travel by mule, as
noted by Ward (1828, p. 316): “In Mexico,
you never stop upon the road to bait, but
perform the whole distance, whatever it
may be, without a halt. It is better for the
horses and mules, as they have a longer time
together for rest and food, which, in so hot
a climate, they do not enjoy without water,
and this cannot be given them, in any
quantity, until the day’s work is done.”

The first entry in Coulter’s notebook is
dated, at London, August 18, 1824, and is
followed in the next few weeks by several
having to do with the ragulation of the
chronometers. On September 21 Coulter
boarded his ship, the Thalza, and on the
next day she sailed from Gravesend. She
reached Funchal, Madeira, on October 13
or 14 and left again on November 5. An-
tigua was sighted on November 29, and on
December 8 the ship came to anchor off
Port Maria, Jamaica. Coulter found it im-
possible to take his baggage overland to
Kingston, so obtained passage in a small
boat and reached Kingston on the 14th.

At Kingston, through a gentleman whom
he had known previously in Ireland, Coulter
secured permission to continue his trip on
the British ship Primrose, which carried the
mails to Veracruz, and left Jamaica on
January 6, 1825. On January 27 the ship
came to anchor just south of Veracruz, and
the next day Coulter passed the customs
and received his passport at Mocambo. His
experiences for the next few days may be
told in his own words:

Friday Feby. 4th. 1825 I have not got mules be-
fore today. Set out at four oclock. As far as
Xalapa, which we reach on the 8th (five days) the
road lies thro’ the tierras calientes—& as the coun-
try is rather flat, with a good deal of wood, we see
but little of it—We rest a day (9th) at Xalapa—I
make the acquaintance [of] the Count de Sache
(is it so he spells it) who is travelling here to col-
lect—& go out a shooting with his aide [whom
Coulter calls Ferd. Deppe de Berlin].

Feby. 10th Proceed. from Xalapa the road
ascends rapidly, but is good. The scenery exceed-

VOL. 33, NO. 3

ingly alpine but this ceases in one day. We sleep
at La Joia—& may now consider ourselves on the
tableland. [La Joia, 6 or 7 miles northwest of
Jalapa, appears on Humboldt’s (1812) map as
‘‘La Hoya’; Ward (1828, p. 196) uses the latter
spelling; a nearby mountain appears as “La
Jolla” on Ward’s maps.]

Feby. llth At La Cruz Blanca we quit the
great road to Mexico & take to the Steppe, pass-
ing at first thro’ a fine forest of pines & sleep at
Sierite Leonce [spelling?].

On the 12th the party passed Santa
Gertrudis, on the 13th Virreyes, on the 14th
‘St. Miguel Franco,” and on the 16th Santa
Buenaventura. The route for these five days
was at first southwest, then northwest,
approximately along the course now fol-
lowed by the Ferrocarril Interoceanico.
Humboldt shows the route between Jalapa
and Franco, which is apparently the “St.
Miguel Franco” of Coulter; La Cruz Blanca,
or Cruz Blanca, is about 10 miles northeast
of the modern Perote, Veracruz; Sierite
Leonce is apparently near the Cerro de
Leén, about 6 miles southwest of Perote.
Near this point, or about 6—7 miles south-
west of Perote, Coulter’s road forked ; Santa
Gertrudis lay on the more northern road,
about 2 miles from the fork. Beyond Vir-
reyes, in the state of Puebla, the road turned
again to the northwest; Franco is in eastern
Tlaxcala and Santa Buenaventura is in
the northwestern part of the same state.
Coulter continues:

17th Pass Apan [i.e. Apam, Hidalgo] & stop at
an Hacienda—good horses here but dear—(Tala-
hiote) [i.e. Tlalayote, Hidalgo]. We have now
been seven days on the steppe with hills on each
side of us—& might still continue on it to Tu-
lancingo—but take a shorter road to Real del
Monte.

18th After a league of plains we take to the
mountains—« reach a considerable pueble on the
borders of a pretty large plain. 19th reach Guaj-

olote, on the companys possessions. Sunday,
Feby. 20th, 1825. Real del Monte.

On leaving Apam, Coulter seems to have
doubled back to the east to reach Tlalayote,
then turned to the northwest before reach-
ing Tulancingo. Guajolote is 8 or 10 miles
east of Pachuca, Hidalgo.

Real del Monte (often appearing on mod-
ern maps as Mineral del Monte) was an an-
cient mining center, the site of some of the
workings of the Real del Monte Mining

Mar. 15, 1943

Co., with whom Coulter had a 3-year con-
tract as medical attendant. At the mine he
made his headquarters for some months.
The entries in his diary were made here at
various times from February 20 until April
16. On this latter date he left for Mexico
City, sleeping at San Mateo and reaching
the capital on the 17th. He stayed in Mex-
ico at least until the 27th, but on the 29th
he was back in Real del Monte, where he
stayed until June 15. From June 17 to June
28 he was in Mexico again, and from June 30
until October 31 the entries indicate that
he was at Real del Monte more or less con-
tinuously.

On October 31, 1825, Coulter began what
was to be a three weeks’ trip to Zacatecas.
His daily entries during this trip give his
movements in the minutest detail; he at-
tempted to fix his position at intervals each
day by means of compass bearings on prom-
inent points, by the courses of streams, by
barometric readings, and by the estimated
distances traveled. The route led westward
from Pachuca to Tetepango and Tula,
Hidalgo, and thence along the old highway
from Mexico to Zacatecas. The details are
well shown on Humboldt’s maps (1812); the
part of the road between Tula and Silao is
described by Ward (1828, p. 411 et seq.). The
itinerary of Coulter’s trip, as taken from the
entries in his diary, is as follows:

1825

Oct. 31. Real del Monte to Pachuca, Hidalgo.

Nov. 1. Pachuca to Tetepango, Hidalgo.

2. Tetepango, via the pueblo of San Pedro
and via Tula, to San Antonio, Hidal-
go.

. Remained at San Antonio.

. San Antonio to Arroyo Sarco [i.e.,
Zarco], México.

5. Arroyo Zarco to San Juan del Rio,
Querétaro. -

. San Juan del Rio to the city of Queré-
taro.

. Remained at Querétaro.

. Querétaro to Celaya, Guanajuato.

. Celaya to Salamanca, Guanajuato.

. Salamanca to Hacienda de Burras [i.e.,
Burras], Guanajuato, via Santa Rosa
and Jarapitio.

11. Hacienda de Burras to the city of
Guanajuato, via Marfil. During the
day Coulter spent some time at the
Valenciana mine, northeast of the city.

12. Guanajuato to Silao, Guanajuato.

He 09

ooon =>)

MCVAUGH: TRAVELS OF THOMAS COULTER, 1824-1827 67

Nov. 13. Silao to Leén, Guanajuato.

14. Leén to Lagos, Jalisco [sometimes called
Lagos de Moreno].

15. Lagos to Mesén de Sauces, ‘‘a wretched
place.”’ This hostelry, which appeared —
on some contemporary maps of Mex-
ico simply as ‘‘Inn,’’ was known to
Humboldt as ‘‘Venta de los Sauces,”’
and stood at the point where the road
turned from its northwesterly course
from Lagos to run almost due north
to Aguascalientes.

16. Mesén de Sauces to Aguascalientes.

17. Aguascalientes to the hot springs and
return.

18. Aguascalientes to Rincén de Rounos,
Aguascalientes.

19. Visited a¥long-abandoned tin mine, 1
league west of Rincén; left Rincén
after noon; at 4:15 was a league
north of La Punta, and at 5:20
stopped at an unnamed hamlet [ap-
parently near the northern boundary
of the state of Aguascalientes]. |

20. Continued to Soquité [i.e., probably
Zéquite, a few miles southeast of the
city of Zacatecas].

21. Zéquite to Veta Grande, Zacatecas.

22. Veta Grande to Zacatecas.

23. Zacatecas to Veta Grande.

The mines at Veta Grande, north of the
city of Zacatecas, were taken over by the
Bolafios Mining Co. in 1825, according to
Ward (1828). Coulter made his headquar-
ters at Veta Grande for more than a year
and for most of that time was in partial or
complete charge of actual mining operations
(Romney Robinson, 1844; Ward, 1828, p.
628-629); his connection with the Bolafios
Co. is not clear, although its director, a
Captain Vetch, was also the director of the
Real del Monte Co. (Ward, 1828).

From the time of his arrival until Decem-
ber 12, 1825, Coulter seems to have re-
mained at Veta Grande. From Friday to
Sunday, December 2 to 4, he reported a
cold snap, with the minimum temperatures
ranging between 16° and 20° F. On Decem-
ber 8 he says: “‘The Maguays have suffered
but very little by the hard frost of Friday
to Sunday last—Those only that were
about flowering seem a little nipped. They
however do not thrive well here—are
scarcely cultivated.’ Temperatures at Veta
Grande for December 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12,
1825, were later reported by Coulter in his
Notes on Upper California (1835).

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

On the 12th Coulter began a hurried
journey to Bolafios, Jalisco, to attend a Mr.
Martin who was ill of a fever. Leaving at
7:30 p.m., he reached Xeres [i.e., Jerez, now
Ciudad Garcia, about 25 miles west-south-
west of Zacatecas] at 4 the following morn-
ing—with the temperature at 12° F.—and
continued to Santa Maria, which he reached
the same night. Starting early the morning
of the 14th, he reached Bolafios at night. He
stayed at Bolafios until Christmas night; of
his start on the return journey he says:
“That I might not travel on a Sunday I
spend the evening at a ball in the priest’s &
at midnight start on my return to Zacate-
cas.”” On December 28 he proceeded from
Tlaltenango, Zacatecas, to Colotlan, Jal-
isco; on the 29th he went from Colotlan to
Villa Nueva, Zacatecas, and on the 30th he
reached the city of Zacatecas.

After his return from Bolafios Coulter
seems to have spent most of the year 1826
at Zacatecas (more accurately, at Veta

VOL. 33, NO. 3 |

Grande, where he lived), but the entries in
his notebook are few. (The entries are dated
January 12, February 23 and 24, April 9 and
16, May 14, June 11.) Ward (1828, p. 619)
records a visit to Zacatecas, December 21 to
26, 1826, and comments upon the hospital-
ity shown him by Coulter at this time.

The entries in the notebook are nearly
complete for the first months of the year
1827. Coulter left Zacatecas on Monday,
January 15, enroute for the mines at Zim-
apan, Hidalgo. His way is easily followed,
but many of the ranches and haciendas at
which he stopped are not to be found on
modern maps. His direction of travel was
generally southeast:

1827

15. Started for Sauceda and reached El
Refugio, Zacatecas; his day’s jour-
ney was some 20 miles, made in 54
hours.

16. Reached Buenavista in about 6 hours.

17. Reached Ciénaga Grande in 8 hours.

18. Reached Letras in 74 hours.

Jan.

Fig. 1.—The routes followed by Coulter in Mexico, 1825-1827. The circles along the routes indicate
the principal places, and solid dots indicate localities at which Coulter is known to have collected
plants. Broken lines indicate uncertainty as to the exact route followed. The numbered localities are
as follows: 1, Bolafios, Jalisco; 2, Zacatecas, Zacatecas; 3, San Juan del Rio, Querétaro; 4, Zimapéan,
Hidalgo; 5, Real del Monte, Hidalgo; 6, México, D.F.; 7, Jalapa, Veracruz; 8, Veracruz, Veracruz.

"Mar. 15, 1943

Jan. 19. Reached Ojuelos in 6 hours. This ap-
pears to be the Ojuelos in the north-
eastern corner of the state of Jalisco,
but Coulter’s route there from Zaca-
tecas is not entirely clear. A manu-
script map in the British Museum
(B.M. additional ms. 17659A, “‘Mapa
del Reyno de Nueva Galicia Afio de
1812,’ photostat copy in the Library
of Congress) shows Letras (a Ran-
cheria) about 5 miles northwest of
Ojuelos, and Ciénaga Grande (an
Hacienda) about 20 miles west of
Ojuelos. On the same map appear
two haciendas called Buenavista; one
is about 5 miles northeast of Letras,
and the second a few miles north of
Sauceda.

20. Reached a rancho near “Sta. Iphe-
genia”’ in 8. hours.

21. Reached San Felipe, Guanajuato, in 4
hours. :
22. Remained at San Felipe.

23. Reached La Quemada, Guanajuato, in
4+ hours. From San Felipe to San
Miguel he was apparently following
the regular route from San Luis
Potosi to Mexico City.

24. Stopped to shoot, apparently in the
vicinity of La Quemada.

25. Reached Dolores [i.e., Dolores Hidal-
go], Guanajuato.

26. Dolores to San Miguel el Grande [i.e.,
San Miguel of modern maps], Guana-
juato, passing Atotonilco about noon.

27. San Miguel to Rancho de los Ricos, in
43 hours. ‘‘Rancho de los Ricos’’ is
apparently the place appearing on
some maps as Ricos, near the eastern
boundary of Guanajuato, about 15
miles south of east of San Miguel.

28. Passed through Chichimequillas, Queré-
taro (about 10 miles northeast of the
city of Querétaro) and reached Haci-
enda de Mascala [i.e., probably
Amascala, Querétaro, about 5 miles
southeast of the city].

29. Reached San Juan del Rio, Querétaro.

30. Remained at San Juan del Rio.

31. Reached Huichapa [1.e., Huichapdn],
Hidalgo, in 9 hours. At San Juan del
Rio he left the road to Mexico and
turned eastward.

Feb. 1. Huichapdn to La Bahia in 7 hours.

2. La Bahia to Zimapdn, Hidalgo. The
route followed is not entirely clear, as
La Bahia seems not to appear on
modern maps of Hidalgo. Coulter left
La Bahia at 7 a.M., reached the edge
of the barranca of the Rio Tula at
9:45, crossed the river by the bridge

MCVAUGH: TRAVELS OF THOMAS COULTER, 1824-1827 69

about noon, and reached Zimapdan at
6 p.m. His note says that he passed
“by left (S) of San Juanico,”’ so it is
probable that he crossed the river
either at _Izmiquilpdn or at Tula, the
latter being the site of one of the few
bridges over the Rio Tula. If he then
followed a course more or less parallel
to the river, he must have passed to
the south and west (“‘left’’) of San
Juanico.

The notebook contains entries dated at
Zimapan, February 4, 5, 11, and 24, and one
final entry dated October 11, 1827. In Coul-
ter’s Notes on Upper California he reports
observations made at Zimapan between
April 8 and 15; this presumably refers to the
year 1827 or to a later year, for at the same
time in 1825 he was in Real del Monte, and
in 1826 at Veta Grande.

The date of Coulter’s departure from
Zimapan is unknown, but it may have been
at the expiration of his 3-year contract,
either late in 1827 or early in 1828. In the
early part of the latter year he sent to A. P.
DeCandolle a shipment of living cacti,
which the latter reported upon at a meeting
on July 22, 1828. Forty-seven species were
described as new, so that at least a short
time must have elapsed between their ar-
rival in Europe and their presentation by
DeCandolle (DeCandolle, 1828). Allowing
time for their passage across the Atlantic by
sailing vessel, we may fix the time of their
dispatch from Veracruz at about the first of
May, or perhaps earlier. One may suppose
that the shipment had been gathered by
Coulter during the closing months of his
stay at Zimapan and sent abroad upon the
completion of his work there.

Almost nothing is known of Coulter’s life
and activities between the time of his de-
parture from Zimapan and that of his ar-
rival in California, late in November, 1831.
He is known to have been in Sonora, in the
vicinity of Hermosillo, in December, 1829
(Coville, 1895), and from the specimens
cited by Hemsley it seems that he made at
least one trip from San Blas, the seaport of
Tepic, Nayarit, along the old highway
through Tepic to Guadalajara; specimens
labeled ‘“‘San Blas to Tepic”’ or ‘‘San Blas to
Guadalajara” are occasionally cited. He is
also known te have collected at Guaymas,

70 \

Sonora, and at Mazatlan, Sinaloa, and may
well have spent much of the period from
1827 to 1832 in mining centers in the west-
_ ern states of Mexico. If one may judge by
' the specimens cited by Hemsley, Coulter
collected very few plants in western Mexico.
From Zimapan, as pointed out above, ap-
proximately 300 species are listed in the
Biologia Centrali-Americana; from Real del
Monte almost 150 species are noted, and
from Zacatecas about 50. From all western
Mexico together, however, scarcely 75 speci-
mens are cited, and more than half of these
are from ‘‘Sonora Alta,’’ which may refer to
the region about Guaymas or to the region
about Yuma visited by Coulter in 1832.

BOTAN Y.—Four new species of Acanthaceae from Guatemala.
(Communicated by WILLIAM R. Maxon.)

U.S. National Museum.

Recent studies of the Acanthaceae of
Guatemala, especially of material collected
by Julian A. Steyermark on the 1939-40 ex-
pedition of the Field Museum of Natural
History to that country, have resulted in
the recognition of four new species de-
scribed herewith.

Dyschoriste skutchii Leonard, sp. nov.

Herba, caulibus puberulis; lamina foliorum
ovalis vel suborbicularis, apice obtusa vel ro-
tundata basi angustata, parce hispidula; peti-
oli tenues; inflorescentia subcapitata, termi-
nalis, bracteis oblanceolatis; calyx glaber vel
parce hirsutus, segmentis subovatis; corolla
lilacina, minute pubescens; ovarium glabrum.

Stems usually numerous, prostrate, erect or
ascending from a short woody base, puberulous,
the hairs retrorsely curved, white, the roots
thick-fibrous; leaf blades oval to suborbicular,
up to 18 mm long and 14 mm wide, obtuse or
rounded, cuneate at base, bright green, darker
above, sparingly hispidulous (the larger hairs
confined to costa and veins), sometimes ciliate
toward base, the costa and veins (usually 4)
prominent; petioles slender, up to 3 mm long,
more or less puberulous, sometimes ciliate;
flowers crowded in heads at the tips of the

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

the Smithsonian Institution. Received December
15, 1942.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 3

LITERATURE CITED

CouLTER, THomAs. Notes on Upper California.
Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc. London 5: 59-70. 1835.

CovILLE, FrepERIcK V. The botanical ex-
plorations of Thomas Coulter in Mexico and
California. Bot. Gaz. 20: 519-531, pl. 35
(map). 1895.

DEeCanpDo.ieE, A. P. [A postscript to his mono-

graph on the Cactaceae.| Mem. Mus. Hist.
Nat. Paris 17: 107-119. 1828.

Hemsitey, W. Borrine. Biologia Centrali-
Americana. Botany, vols. 1-4. 1879-1888.

HumMBotpT, A. DE. Atlas geographique et
physique du royaume de la Nouvelle-Espagne.
Paris, 1812.

RomMNEY Rosinson, JOHN Tuomas. [No
title—A brief sketch of Coulter’s life.}] Proce.
Roy. Irish Acad. 2: 553-557. 1844.

Warp, H.G. Mezico in 1827, vol. 2, 730 pp.,
with map. London, 1828.

E. C. LEONARD,

branches; bracts oblanceolate, somewhat
smaller than the leaves but resembling them in
most respects; calyx up to 13 mm long, the tube
3 mm long, glabrous or sparingly hirsute, the
segments subulate, hirsute, the hairs white,
spreading, up to 0.75 mm long, but gradually
shorter and very minute toward the bristle-like _
tips of the lobes; corolla lavender, minutely and
inconspicuously pubescent, about 13 mm long,
the narrow portion of the tube about 5 mm long
and 1.5 mm in diameter at base, narrowed to
1 mm just above base, thence gradually ex-
panded to 4 or 5 mm at throat, the limb about
8 mm broad, the lobes rounded; stamens 3 and
4 mm long, the anthers ovate, the minute white
mucronate tips of their basal lobes slightly
divergent; ovary glabrous; mature capsules not
seen.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. ~
1586098, collected on an open hillside near
Tecpam, Department of Chimaltenango, Gua-
temala, altitude 2,100 meters, July 22, 1933,
by A. F. Skutch (no. 474). Lehmann 1524 from
Huehuetenango, Guatemala, altitude 1,500
meters, and Steyermark 33063, collected on dry
slopes of pine woods just southwest of Minas
de Croma, Department of Jalapa, Guatemala,
are also this species.

Dyschoriste skutchit is related to D. capitata
(Oerst.) Kuntze but is amply distinct in its
oval or suborbicular leaves and in its puberu-

Mar. 15, 1943

lous stems. In D. capitata the leaves are obovate
and the stems pubescent, with longer and more
spreading hairs. The latter species seems to be
limited to southern Mexico.

Dicliptera vulcanica Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, caulibus parce pilosis; lamina foli-
orum ovata, breve-acuminata, basi obtusa vel
acuta, in petiolum decurrens, parce hirsuta;
petioli tenues, pilosi; cymae pedunculatae;
bracteae floriferae herbaceae, pilosae, puber-
ulae, bractea posterior linearis, anterior ob-
lanceolata; bracteae laterales angusto-lanceola-
tae vel subulatae, chartaceae, puberulae; caly-
cis segmenta lanceolato-subulata, papilloso-
puberula et pilosa; corolla subrufa, pubescens,
labio superiore leviter emarginato, minute api-
culato, inferiore oblongo, trilobo, lobis parvis,
rotundatis; capsulae parvulae; semina plana,
orbiculata, fulva, minute verrucosa.

Shrub up to 2 meters tall; stems sparingly
pilose, the hairs white, spreading or retrorsely
curved, up to 1 mm long, more or less arranged
in 2 lines, or the lower portions of the stems
glabrous; leaf blades ovate, up to 10 cm long
and 5 cm wide, short-acuminate (the tip blunt),
acute or obtuse at base and decurrent on the
petiole, thin, drying dark green, sparingly
hirsute, the hairs spreading, 0.5 to 1 mm long,
confined chiefly to costa and veins (6 or 7
pairs); petioles slender, up to 2.5 cm long,
pilose; flowers borne in axillary peduncled
cymes (3 flowers in each cluster), the peduncles
up to 6 em long, sparingly pilose, usually
branched at tip, each bearing 3 to 5 stalked
flower-clusters; bracts subtending the second-
ary peduncles subulate, up to 5 mm long,
pilose, the pair of outer floral bracts herbace-
ous, both pilose and puberulous (at least some
of the hairs glandular), the posterior one linear,
about 10 mm long and 1.5 mm wide, acute, the
anterior one oblanceolate, 13 mm long and 3.5
mm wide, acute, the interior floral bracts nar-
rowly lanceolate or subulate, up to 8 mm long
and 1 mm wide, chartaceous, puberulous, the
hairs papilliform; calyx 7 to 8 mm long, the
tube subglabrous, the segments about 6 mm
long, lance-subulate, 1 mm wide at base, thence
gradually narrowed to a slender tip, the pubes-
cence a mixture of minute papilliform hairs
and longer pointed ones; corolla 33 mm long,
dull reddish, finely pubescent, the tube about
13 mm long, the lower portion about 3 mm

LEONARD: NEW ACANTHACEAE FROM GUATEMALA oe

broad for 8 mm of its length, thence gradually
and somewhat obliquely enlarged to 6 mm at
throat, the posterior lip oval, about 6 mm wide,
rounded, shallowly emarginate and minutely
apiculate, the anterior lip oblong, about 5 mm
wide, the 3 lobes rounded, about 1 mm long
and wide or slightly wider, the middle one
ciliate; capsule 12 mm long, 5 mm broad,
puberulous; seeds flattened, orbicular, 3 mm in
diameter, brown, minutely verrucose, or smooth
with age.

Type in the herbarium of the Field Museum
of Natural History, no. 1045321, collected at
base of barranca along stream between Taj-
umulco and Loma Buena Vista, on the north-
western slope of Voleén Tajumulco, Guatemala,
altitude 2,300 to 2,800 meters, February 28,
1940, by Julian A. Steyermark (no. 36861);
isotype in U. S. National Herbarium, no.
1820956.

This well-marked species is characterized by
the thin hirsute leaf blades, the peduncled
cymes, and the peculiar minute papilliform
hairs of the calyx and bracts.

Odontonema steyermarkii Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex glaber; lamina foliorum ovata vel ob-
longa, acuminata, basi angustata, in petiolum
decurrens; panicula parce ramosa; bracteae
subulatae, ciliolatae; pedicelli tenues; calycis
segmenta subulata, parce puberula; corollae
tubus pallide ochraceus, lobis lilacinis, ovali-
bus, rotundatis; ovarium glabrum.

Glabrous shrub up to 2 meters high; leaf
blades ovate to oblong, up to 18 cm long and 8
em wide, acuminate (the tip blunt), narrowed
or rounded at base and decurrent on the petiole,
the costa and veins prominent; petioles up to
3 cm long; inflorescence a sparingly branched
panicle, the flowers borne in umbels of usually
3 to 6 flowers each, the lowermost of these pe-
duncled (5 mm long, successively shorter to-
ward tip), the uppermost sessile; bracts sub-
tending the peduncles subulate, 1.5 mm wide at
base, gradually narrowed to a slender tip, cilio-
late, those subtending the umbels similar but
slightly smaller; pedicels slender, up to 6 mm
long; calyx 3.5 mm long, the segments subu-
late, about 3 mm long and 0.5 mm wide at
base, sparingly puberulous toward tip; corolla
up to 24 mm long, 2 mm in diameter at base,
narrowed about 5 mm above base to 1 mm,

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

thence enlarged to about 4 mm at throat, the
tube pale buff, the lobes lilac, oval, 5 mm long
and 2.5 mm wide, rounded at tip; ovary gla-
brous; fruit not seen.

Type in the Herbarium of the Field Museum
of Natural History, no. 1046653, collected
along road between Finca Pirineos and Calahua-
ché, Department of Quezaltenango, Guate-
mala, altitude 1,200 to 1,300 meters, January
27, 1940, by Julian A. Steyermark (no. 35020);
isotype in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.
1820953.

This species may be recognized by its nar-
row, sparingly branched panicles of flowers,
which are said by the collector to be pale buff
and lilac.

Odontonema galbanum Leonard, sp. nov.

Frutex, caulibus glabris vel parce et minute
pubescentibus; lamina foliorum oblonga, longe
acuminata, basi angustata, plus minusve fal-
cata; panicula angusta, terminalis; bracteae
subulatae, glabrae; calyx glaber, segmentis sub-
ulatis; corolla glabra, galbana, labio superiore
bilobo, lobis parvis, rotundatis, ciliolatis, in-
feriore trilobo, lobis ovalibus, parce ciliolatis;
Ovarium glabrum.

Shrub up to 2 meters high; stems glabrous or
Sparingly and minutely appressed-pubescent;

VOL. 33, NO. 3

leaf blades oblong, up to 36 cm long and 5.5 em
wide, long-acuminate (the tip often curved), —
gradually narrowed at base, rather thin, veiny,
the costa and lateral veins (usually 10 to 12
pairs) fairly prominent; inflorescence a narrow
terminal panicle 20 cm long, the flowers borne
in small sessile or subsessile umbels, the pedi-
cels up to 5 mm long, these and the rachis
glabrous; bracts of the rachis subulate, 3 mm
long and 1 mm wide at base or less, keeled,
glabrous, those subtending the pedicels similar
but smaller; calyx glabrous, 2.5 to 3 mm long,
the segments subulate; corolla glabrous, green-
ish yellow, up to 27 mm long, 2 mm in diameter
at base, narrowed to 1.5 mm just above base,
the throat 3 mm in diameter, the hps 5 mm
long, the upper lip 2-lobed, the lobes 1.5 mm
long, rounded, ciliolate, the lower lip of 3 oval
lobes 3 mm wide, rounded, sparingly ciliolate
at tip; ovary glabrous; fruit not seen.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.
1790033, collected in moist forest near Bar-
ranca Hondo, above Lake Lajas, Department
of Escuintla, Guatemala, altitude about 1,200
meters, January 31, 1939, by Paul C. Standley
(no. 63875). Standley 65014, collected at essen-
tially the same locality, is also of this species.

Odontonema galbanum is easy to recognize by
its slender glabrous panicle of greenish-yellow —
flowers.

ENTOMOLOGY.—Some undescribed species of flies of the genus Baccha (Syrphi-

dae).!
STONE.)

This paper presents descriptions of several
species of Baccha. These flies were found
among material lent for study by Dr. C. L.
Fluke, whom I wish to thank for his kind
assistance in my study of the genus. The
types are in Dr. Fluke’s collection. Para-
types where available are in the author’s
collection.

Baccha boadicea, n. sp.

Related to gracilis Williston. Distinguished
by the small spot in the center of the wing and
by the larger size. |

Male.—Length 9.5 mm. Head: face and front
shining black, both yellowish-white pubescent
along the sides, the former bluish centrally and

1 Received November 4, 1942.

F. M. Hutu, University of Mississippi. (Communicated by ALAN

with yellow pile; the face in profile without
tubercle and barely concave beneath the anten-
nae. The pile of the front is dark brown
centrally. The antennae are orange, widely —
black above on the third joint. The vertex is —
shining black with black pile in front, yellow
behind. Thorax: mesonotum shining black,
nonvittate, short golden pilose, the humeri

_ brown, the pleura brownish black with yellow

pile and pollen, the scutellum shining black
with creased rim, short yellow pile and fringe.
Squamae pale. Abdomen: elongate, slender, dark
brown, the first joint almost black, the third
laterally yellow on the base on each side, the
yellow extending about two-fifths the length
of the segment. Fourth segment obscurely but
narrowly yellow basally, its basal pile yellow,

Mar. 15, 1943

its apical pile black. Legs: yellow on the first
two pairs, their femora brownish on the basal
half or more, their pile yellow. Hind femora and
their tibiae, except the narrow bases, brown
and black, respectively, their tarsi pale yellow.
Wing: pale brown with microscopic slender
- alula; stigmal cell dark, and a small spot above
the small cross vein brown.

Holotype, male. Pinas, Ecuador, 1,506
‘meters, July 14, 1941, D. B. Laddey. (Fluke
collection.)

Baccha vespuccia, nN. sp.

Near papilio Hull. The abdominal fascia and
vittae are differently shaped. Abdomen widest
at end of fourth segment.

“Male.—Length 8-10 mm. Head: face and
front brownish yellow, a shining blackish half
circle over the antennae and a black spot on
lunula. Antennae orange, the third joint black-
ish above. Thorax: mesonotum metallic brown-
ish or aeneous-black, with a pair of rather close
brown vittae. The humeri, the lateral margins,
the post calli and the scutellum are light yel-
lowish brown, the latter with a few black hairs
and no fringe. Mesopleurae and pteropleurae
orange; pleura posteriorly blackish. Abdomen:
spatulate, the apex barely wider than the base,
sepia brown, the narrow sides of the first seg-
ment yellowish; the second segment is one and
a half times as long as wide with, on each side,
a diagonal, yellowish fascia meeting in the mid-
line. Third segment with a similar fascia,
divided medially and medially expanded, their
posterior margins indented. Fourth segment
with, on each side, an inverted Y-shaped figure.
Fifth with submedial, yellowish vittae and
short sublateral vittae narrowly connected
basally with the medial ones. Legs: brownish
yellow, the hind femora and tibiae dark brown.
Wings: entirely dark brown; alulae quite nar-
row.

Female.—Front with continuous medial vit-
tae; mesonotum with four violet stripes.

Holotype male, allotype female, and one male
paratype, Nova Teutonia, Brazil; Fritz Plau-
mann. (Fluke collection.)

Baccha aurora, n. sp.

Slender, without alulae. Mesonotum dark
brown and yellow laterally, with two gray pol-
linose vittae. Related to argentina Curran.

HULL: NEW FLIES OF THE GENUS BACCHA 73

Female.—Length 10 mm. Head: face and
front pale yellow, the latter with a linear brown
stripe on the upper part and a tiny black dot on
lunula. Pile short, sparse, and black. Vertex
black with gray pollen. Antennae yellow, the
third joint missing. Thorax: mesonotum brassy
black, with a pair of widely separated, steel-
blue vittae with gray pollen that reach to the
scutellum, and a similar median one on the pos-
terior half. Lateral margins, humeri, scutellum,
and all of pleura except a posterior black stripe,
pale yellow. Scutellum with a few black hairs
and three or four black, central fringe hairs.
Abdomen: rather slender, the first segment
brown, the anterior corners pale yellow with
about 10 black setaceous hairs and a few long
pale ones. Second segment with the base light
brown and a pair of lateral, subquadrate,
brownish-yellow spots just past the middle
which are narrowly separated above; the re-
mainder of this segment is blackish. Third seg-
ment with an obscure, basal, lateral vittate
spot. Fourth segment with a large lateral vitta
extending from the base to the posterior two-
thirds, its posteromedial margin rounded. Fifth
segment shining black. Legs: yellow, the hind
femora and tibiae pale brown with subapical
brown annulus and the tibiae with the middle
paler. Hind basitarsi brownish yellow, the re-
maining joints dark brown. Wing: hyaline;
stigmal cell very dark; no alula.

Holotype: female. Villa Rica, Paraguay,
August 1939, F. Schade. (Fluke collection.)

Baccha niobe, n. sp.

Related to placiva Williston. The pile on the
sides of the first segment is long. Wing apex
with a spot.

Male.—Length 9 mm. Head: face and front
yellow, with a black dot on lunula. Antennae
orange; arista dark brown. The pile of the front
is black. Vertex black, rather shining. Thorax:
mesonotum cinnamon-brown with a violaceous
stripe adjacent to the wide yellow margins.
Pleura yellow with a golden reflection. Scutel-
lum brownish orange with a few slender brown
hairs and no fringe. Abdomen: elongate, slender,
the second and third segments cylindrical.
First segment orange and brown, the second
orange-brown basally, black on the _ pos-
terior half, shining apically, in the middle
with a pair of oblique, leaflike spots that are

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

narrowly separated above; these spots are
margined on all sides by opaque black, the
opaque black forming a triangle behind. Third
segment similar, the oblique spots and the
median black extend narrowly to the base.
Fourth segment with small black triangles in
the anterior corners and a large, orange spot
basally on each side, its medial margins parallel,
its posterior margins oblique and serving to
extend the spots apically to the lateral margins.
Last segment violaceous-black. Legs: yellow,
the hind femora brown at base and with a wide,
brown preapical band, their tibiae broadly
brown through the middle. Wing: light brown,
diffusely blackish at the tip, the alula quite
narrow but equally developed throughout.

Holotype: male. Palmar, Manabi, Ecuador,
200 meters, April 10, 1941, D. B. Laddey; a
paratype male with same data. (Fluke collec-
tion.)

Baccha danaida, n. sp.

Related to sepia Hull. The first abdominal
segment is yellow on the sides, the third seg-
ment has a pair of triangles. The cheeks and
pleura are wholly dark brown.

Male—Length 11 mm. Head: face and
cheeks yellow; the tubercle and a stripe above
are brown; the front is widely black above but
yellow on the sides. It is black pilose. Antennae
orange-brown, the arista darker. Thorax:
mesonotum brassy brown with a pair of wide,
prominent, reddish-brown vittae; the lateral
margins are yellowish brown. The pleurae are
metallic, dark brown, blackish behind, yellow-
ish on mesopleurae and upper sternopleurae.
Scutellum light yellowish brown with sparse
dark hair and no fringe. Abdomen: spatulate,
wide basally, sepia brown, the sides of the first
segment yellow with long black hairs, the
second has a slender, diagonal, laterally ex-
panded pair of fascia; the third as a pair of
central, narrowly separated, triangular spots.
The fourth segment has a pair of comma-
shaped spots, and fifth a pair of basal, obscure
vittae, laterally extended. Legs: first pair
brownish yellow; middle femora light brown,

VOL. 33, NO. 3

their tibiae and tarsi yellowish; hind femora
dark brown, their tibiae black, their basitarsi
brown basally, its apex and all the remaining
segments yellow. Wing: wholly dark brown,
stigma narrow. a |
Holotype: male. Nova Teutonia, Brazil;
Fritz Plaumann. (Fluke collection.) ‘

Baccha saffrona, n. sp.

Abdomen with oblique, triangular vittae,
wing light brown, alula rudimentary. Related
to scintillans Hull.

Male.—Length 9 mm. Head: face and front
yellow, a black dot on the lunula; antennae
orange-brown with blackish arista. Frontal pile
long and black. Thorax: mesonotum light red-
dish brown, the sides yellowish brown. Vittae
if present obscured; scutellum yellowish or
reddish brown, the whole pleura yellow-brown.
Abdomen: slender, subcylindrical, reddish
brown on the first segment and base of second,
the latter with a pair of oblique, leaflike orange
spots near the middle, not meeting above and
margined with opaque black. Third segment
with similar, longer, more triangular spots,
which reach the base of the segment. Base of
segment otherwise blackish, blue-green in the
lateral corners. Fourth segment with a similar
wider spot more widely extended on the base of
the segment, the corners and posterior margin
of this segment and the whole of the fifth seg-
ment, except for a pair of small basal spots,
peacock-blue. Legs: deep yellow, the hind
femora quite brown at base and subapically,
yellow in the middle, their tarsi dark brown
except at base and extreme apex, their tarsi
deep yellow. Wing: wholly light brown, the
stigmal cell darker; the alula quite narrow.

Female.—Similar to the male, spots absent
on fifth segment, the blue areas more violet and ~
the apex of the wings with an ill-defined smoky
spot, the whole wing pale. This may belong to
a different species.

Holotype: male. Palmar, Manabi, Ecuador,
April 7, 1941, D. B. Laddey. Allotype, female;
two paratypes, males, two females, all same
data. (Fluke collection.)

Mar. 15, 1943

LUCKER: A NEW TRICHOSTRONGYLID NEMATODE

ZOOLOGY.—A new trichostrongylid nematode from the stomachs of American

squirrels.

The worms described in this paper were
collected by L. Wayne Wilson from two
squirrels (Sciurus) taken near Moorefield,
Hardy County, W. Va., in November, 1941.
Examination of the specimens revealed that
they were trichostrongyloid nematodes, but
it was immediately apparent that the males

_ were very unusual, since certain of the bur-

sal rays were observed to be chitinized.?
So far as the writer has been able to as-

certain, the only trichostrongyloid nema-

tode in which the occurrence of chitinized
bursal rays has been reported is Béhmiella
perichitinea Gebauer, 1932. Travassos,’ in
his extensive monograph on the Tricho-
strongylidae, agreed with Gebauer,‘ that,
except in this genotype, chitinized bursal

rays are unknown among the Strongyloidea.

The specimens collected by Mr. Wilson
are here described as representing a new
species, closely related to B. perichitinea,
and for it the name B. wilsoni is proposed.
While not admissible as evidence of zoologi-
cal relationship, it is nevertheless of interest
that both B. perichitinea and B. wilsoni are
stomach worms of rodents. The known ro-
dent hosts of the respective worms are not,
however, closely allied species. B. perichi-
tinea was found in a nutria or coypu, Myo-

castor coypus, in Germany. Whether it was

introduced into Europe with the coypt,
which is indigenous to South America, or
normally occurs in European rodents is a
question that as yet can not be answered,
because there appears to be no subsequent
report of its occurrence.

Although previously unrecognized, B.
wilsont evidently has existed in squirrels in

1 Received September 7, 1942.

*In this paper derivatives of the noun chitin
are used not in the chemical sense but as con-
venient descriptive terms to indicate the presence
in the specified locations of a dense, brownish sub-
stance, probably similar to that composing the
spicules of trichostrongylins and identical with it
im appearance.

3 Travassos, Lauro. Revisdo da familia Tricho-
strongylidae Leiper, 1912. Mongr. Inst. Oswaldo
Cruz no. 1, 512 pp., 295 pls. 1937.

_* GeBaver, Orro. Béhmiella perichitinea n. sp.
en neuer Trichostrongylide (Nematodes) des
Nutria. Zeitschr. fiir Parasitenk. 4(4): 730-736,
illus. 1932.

JoHn T. Luckrr, Bureau of Animal Industry.

the southeastern United States for many
years, since 4 females, undoubtedly the
same as B. wilsonz, were found by the writer
among specimens (U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll.
no. 2934) collected by Dr. Albert Hassall
from Sciurus carolinensis in 1897.

Bohmiella wilsoni, n. sp.
(Figs. 1-17)

Description.—Head small; diameter (40y to
50u) approximately the same as that of the ad-
jacent cervical region. Lips absent; oral opening
roughly circular; circumoral membrane present
(Fig. 4). Amphidial pores and tips of ventro-
lateral papillae reaching cuticular surface ad-
jacent to outer margin of circumoral mem-
brane. Submedian papillae four in number,
single, externally directed, their tips slightly
protruding within depressions located slightly
posterior to level of circumoral membrane. In
en face view, semicircular strands of fibrillike
nature may be seen extending outwardly from
beneath margin of circumoral membrane to
base of each submedian papilla; these strands
apparently represent complete union and fusion
of terminal branches of submedian papillary
nerves. Margin of mouth opening apparently
bearing superficially a row of extremely minute
denticlelike structures which are interpreted as
representing a weakly developed corona radi-
ata (Fig. 4). Oral cavity very shallow, saucer-
shaped; lining nonsclerotized. Esophagus com-
municating with buccal cavity by minute tri-
angular opening and with a minute denticle,
formed by lining of dorsal sector, protruding
through opening into mouth cavity (Fig. 6).
Esophagus swollen at anterior extremity;
swollen portion histologically differentiated
somewhat from tissue of remainder and par-
tially surrounds mouth cavity (Figs. 3, 6).
Cuticular covering of dorsal esophageal sec-
tor just posterior to minute terminal den-
ticle forming a comparatively large, more
or less transversely directed onchium with
lumen and orifice at tip, presumably repre-
senting opening of dorsal esophageal gland,
since a fine duct connecting with the lumen
passes posteriorly into the tissue of the dorsal
sector; tip of.onchium not reaching floor of

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

buccal cavity (Figs. 5, 6). Cuticular covering of
each subventral sector of esophagus at level
near base of onchium forming two minute, den-
ticlelike, transversely directed eruptions; also
forming rounded hyaline expansions at an-
terior extremity (Fig. 3). Cervical papillae,

large, located slightly posterior to level of °

nerve ring; excretory pore between level of
nerve ring and cervical papillae (Fig. 7). Lat-
eral alae absent; cuticle of mid-body provided
with about 50 longitudinal ridges.

VOL. 33, NO. 3

deeper than that between the latter and left
lateral lobe (Fig. 10). Ventral rays with com-
mon origin; directed posterolaterally for about
two-thirds their length, curving anteriorly to
bursal margin in their distal one-third, sep-
arated and somewhat divergent, but with their
tips rather close together (Fig. 14). Ventro-
ventrals smallest rays of lateral lobes, appear-
ing as branches of lateroventrals, the latter
having greater flexure than the ventroventrals
and being the most robust of the bursal rays

Figs. 1-2.—Béhmiella wilsoni, n. sp., caudal region of male:
1, Ventral aspect; 2, lateral aspect. (Photomicrographs; mag-
nification approx. X80.)

Male.—lIn 3 available specimens 17.1 to 20.3
mm long by 0.21 to 0.24 mm wide just in front
of bursa; esophagus, 0.84 to 0.94 mm long;
distance from nerve ring and cervical papillae
to anterior extremity, 0.32 to 0.35 and 0.43 to
0.45 mm, respectively; length of spicules, 0.300
to 0.821 mm; axial length of gubernaculum,
0.121 to 0.135 mm, length measured along
curvature, 0.140 to 0.153 mm.

Prebursal papillae well developed (Fig. 14).
Lateral bursal lobes roughly triangular with
mediolateral and posterolateral rays support-
ing apex, originating near median ventral line
of body surface a considerable distance anterior
to genital cone, and with fine veinlike mark-
ings. Cleft between right lateral lobe and com-
paratively small dorsal lobe only slightly

(Figs. 10, 14). Laterals with common origin,
comparatively slender, directed posterolat-
erally, except that externolaterals, which are
parallel and contiguous to mediolaterals
through most of their length, curve anteriorly
away from the latter in distal one-third, so that
their tips—which do not quite reach bursal
margin—are considerably anterior to tips of
mediolaterals (Figs. 10, 14, 17). Mediolaterals
and posterolaterals equal, parallel, and con-
tiguous, longer than externolaterals and other
rays; tips close together, reaching bursal mar- —
gin. Externodorsals more robust than laterals,
but less robust than lateroventrals, apparently
originating high up on stem of dorsal, parallel
and contiguous to posterolaterals for most of
length, but curving anterodorsally away from

rie oe”

Mar. 15, 1943 LUCKER: A NEW TRICHOSTRONGYLID NEMATODE té

Figs. 3-17.—Béhmiella wilsoni, n. sp.: 3, Anterior end (female), ventral aspect, optical section
through dorsal onchium and two subventral esophageal teeth; 4, head (female), en face aspect; 5,
optical cross section through esophagus in region of dorsal onchium, aspect in en face mount of head;
6, anterior end (female), lateral aspect, optical section through dorsal onchium and two pairs of sub-
ventral esophageal teeth; 7, esophageal region (male), lateral aspect; 8, telemon, lateral aspect; 9,
gubernaculum, lateroventral aspect; 10, caudal region of male, dorsal aspect (chitinization represented
by stippling); 11, right spicule, ventral aspect; 12, left spicule, ventro-lateral aspect; 13, caudal region
of female, lateral aspect; 14, caudal region of male, ventral aspect (chitinization represented by stip-
pling); 15, gubernaculum, lateral aspect; 16, telemon, ventral aspect; 17, caudal region of male, lateral
aspect (chitinization represented by stippling, to simplify the figure only part of the left lateral lobe
of the bursa is shown).

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

them distally so their tips, which reach the
bursal margin, are considerably removed from
the tips of the posterolaterals; length about
same as externolaterals (Fig. 14). Dorsal ray
much shorter than other rays, not asymmetri-
cally located, straight; stem wide, bifurcate in
distal one-fourth, each branch typically tridigi-
tate but one may be bidigitate; ventral surface
of stem without accessory branch (Fig. 10).
Lateral rays with dense brownish chitinization
at base and less dense chitinization extending
nearly to tips, particularly along margins (Figs.
1, 2, 10, 14, 17). Externodorsal rays usually
chitinized at base only (Fig. 10). In lateral view
(Figs. 2, 17) chitinized tissues seen to extend
internally and anteriorly from bases of these
rays towards gubernaculum and anteriorly for
a short distance along dorsal body wall, prob-
ably representing for most part modification of
muscular tissues; in ventral view (Figs. 1, 14)
these chitinized extensions appearing as a sort
of median transverse bridge in region of spicule
tips and gubernaculum. Genital cone with two
submedian, thumblike, posteriorly directed
processes. Spicules complex, brownish, con-
sisting of complicated proximal knob and alate
shaft and terminating distally in three proc-
esses, the longest representing a continuation
of main shaft (Figs. 11, 12); proximal ends
located laterally near body wall and in frontal
plane; main shafts extending slightly dorsad
and mediad in proximal two-fifths of length
and rather sharply ventrad and mediad in distal
three-fifths so tips reach median line in cloacal
region (Figs. 1, 2, 10, 14). Shorter of two sub-
sidiary distal prongs of each spicule originating
from mediodorsal surface of main shaft, paral-
leling it and terminating in rather blunt, but
digitate, medioventrally directed tip; remain-
ing subsidiary prong: originating from latero-
dorsal surface of main shaft, paralleling other
prongs in most of length, usually curving dor-
sally away from them to rather sharp but digi-
tate tip (Figs. 11, 12). Gubernaculum brownish,
more or less boat-shaped, with very strongly
chitinized dorsal keel ending proximally in
knob and branching near distal tip to form pair
of lateral crura (Fig. 9) reenforcing small dorso-
lateral triangular alate projections, which
merge with main lateroventrally directed
wings (Fig. 15). In cloacal region light brownish
chitinized structures, representing the telemon,

present; telemon grossly appearing in lateral
view to be organized into three main sections,
one lying along the posteroventral body wall,
one along the lateroventral wall of the cloaca,
and the remaining one along the laterodorsal
wall of the cloaca (Figs. 2, 17), but consisting
of a considerable number of more or less dis-
tinct, yet interrelated and apparently inter-
connected elements (Figs. 8, 16).

Female.—In 6 specimens 37.7 to 43.3 mm
long by 0.40 to 0.58 mm wide at vulva; esopha-
gus, 1.00 to 1.29 mm long; tail, 0.41 to 0.56
mm long; distance from vulva to posterior ex-
tremity 8.2 to 9.6 mm (ratio to body length,
1:4.1 to 1:4.7); eggs 88 to 105u by 50 to 62n.
Tail digitiform, bent slightly dorsad at tip,
without terminal spike or other cuticular or
hypodermal modification (Fig. 13).

Hosts.—Sciurus carolinensis leucotis; S. caro-
linensis; S. niger niger.

Location.—Stomach.

Locality—Moorefield, Hardy County, W.
Va.; Virginia; Newton, Ga.

Specimens.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 36814
(holotype, male); no. 36853 (allotype); no.
36854 (paratypes, 1 male and several females) ;
no. 45329 (removed from lot no. 2934); no.
42772.

Remarks.—The striking and readily observed
character of ray chitinization is obviously one
of great practical value in identification. The
systematic importance, however, that should
be attached to it is a question concerning which
a consensus is not likely to be reached until
specimens with chitinized rays have been more
widely discovered and studied. Travassos® in-
cluded Béhmiella in the Trichostrongylinae
provisionally only and believed that further
study of the bursa of the genotype might justify
placing the genus in a separate major group.
The writer does not regard ray chitinization as
a fundamental morphological modification and
believes that, by itself, the character should be
assigned no more than specific value. It seems
probable that this was Gebauer’s® opinion also,
since he did not propose Béhmiella simply be-

cause of the occurrence of this phenomenon. ~

perichitinea appears to differ from other tricho-
strongylins sufficiently to warrant considering
it a representative of a distinct genus.

5 Op. cit. 6 Op. cit.

VOL. 33, NO. 3 |

It is in a combination of characters that B.

Mar. 15, 1943 KRULL AND JACKSON: ROUTE OF MIGRATION OF LIVER FLUKE 79

The specimens here described are in many of
their general features similar to B. perichitinea
and are, therefore, regarded as representatives
of the same genus. They differ in many re-
spects, however, from the genotype as de-
scribed by Gebauer and, therefore, are re-
garded as representing a new species.

It is conceded that certain of the described
differences between B. wilsont and B. pert-
chitinea are of possible generic value. Notable
among them are discrepancies in the number of
cephalic papillae and in the nature of the buccal
cavity and of the anterior end of the esopha-
gus, and, corollary to the last, in the derivation,
position, and orientation of the dorsal on-
chium and the denticles associated with it;
also in this category are the presence in B.
wilsont of a circumoral elevation and a rudi-
mentary leaf crown. However, the writer sus-
pects that reexamination of the type specimens
of B. perichitinea may reveal a closer similarity
and relationship to B. wilsoni in these respects
than now is evident.

In addition to the differences thus far al-
luded to, B. wilsont is distinguished from B.
perichitinea by presence of prebursal papillae
and a telemon, absence of cervical alae, less
marked inequality in the depth of the clefts
between the dorsal and lateral lobes of the
bursa, lack of dextral curvature and an ac-
cessory ventral rodlike process in the dorsal
ray, longer spicules of different shape and ori-
entation, larger gubernaculum, larger females
with more anteriorly situated vulva, greater
number of longitudinal cuticular ridges, shorter
dorsal onchium, mediolateral and posterior-
lateral rays longer than externolaterals, and
lateroventral rays thicker than externodorsals.
There also appear to be differences in the ex-
tent of the internal chitinized processes in the
caudal region, notably, the absence in B. wil-
sont of a narrow process extending between the
spicules and the anterior extremity of the dor-
sal process, as well as absence of the pair of
broom-shaped lateral processes, figured for B.
perichitinea.

ZOOLOGY .—Observations on the route of migration of the common liver fluke,

Fasciola hepatica, in the definitive host.

WENDELL H. Kruut and R. Scott

JACKSON, U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry.

The essentials of the life history of the
common liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, have
been known since 1882, when Thomas and
Leuckart, independently, showed that the
snail Lymnaea truncatula served as an inter-
mediate host of this important parasite. In
spite of these and subsequent investigations
there still remain details concerning the de-
velopment of the fluke in the intermediate
and definitive hosts that have not been fully
worked out. Important among these is the
route of migration to the liver of the young
fluke after its excystment in the digestive
tract of the definitive host.

Three possible routes of migration have
been postulated, namely, (1) direct migra-
tion from the intestine to the bile ducts
through the hepatic duct; (2) passive trans-
portation by the portal circulation after
penetration of the intestinal mucosa, the
young fluke gaining access to the bile ducts
by perforation; and (8) penetration of the

1 Received November 2, 1942.

intestine, active migration in the peritoneal
cavity, perforation of the liver capsule, and
migration through the liver parenchyma to
the bile ducts. The first of these possible
routes is the one most generally accepted,
although it is the only one entirely unsup-
ported by experimental evidence. On the
other hand, Bugge (1935) concluded, on the
basis of his examination of numerous in-
fected calves, that the young flukes reached
the liver via the portal system. Sinitsin
(1914) demonstrated young flukes in the
washings from the abdominal cavity of rab-
bits to which encysted cercariae had been
administered and concluded that the flukes
must reach the liver through active pene-
tration of the liver capsule; this observation
was supported by Shirai (1927). Sinitsin’s
theory was further supported by Shaw
(1932), who injected larval flukes directly
into the peritoneal cavities of rabbits,
guinea pigs, and lambs and observed that
the young flukes penetrated the hepatic

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

capsule; juvenile flukes were later recovered
from the liver. While the observations of
these investigators demonstrated the ability
of the excysted metacercariae to gain access
to the liver by penetration of the liver cap-
sule, it was not shown that this route is the
normal one or that the young flukes on
reaching the liver could gain access to the
bile ducts and become mature. Since the
flukes are sometimes found in such ab-
normal locations as the lungs and elsewhere,
and may even be acquired prenatally, it
would seem reasonable to conclude that
migration to the liver via the peritoneal
cavity was not the usual-one. In order to
secure additional information on the course
of migration of F’. hepatica in the definitive
host, a number of experiments involving the
transfer of larval flukes from one definitive
host to another were carried out; the results
of these experiments are presented in this
paper.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The larval flukes used in the transfer
experiments described herein were obtained
by administering to white mice and guinea
pigs (first definitive hosts) cysts of F.
hepatica obtained from laboratory infected
snails. After a number of days had elapsed,
the definitive hosts were killed, the young
flukes recovered either from the peritoneal
cavity or the liver tissue, and transferred
in saline by means of a pipette directly into
the peritoneal cavities of guinea pigs, rabbits
and sheep (second definitive hosts). Guinea
pigs were found to be unsatisfactory for this
purpose, as the flukes failed to reach ma-
turity in them. In making the transfers, a
surgical incision was made in the test animal
in the region of the flank, in the case of ab-
dominal transfers, and between the ribs, in
the thoracic transfers, the operative open-
ings being closed by sutures. The operations
were carried out either under local or general
anesthesia.

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

1. Direct transfer of immature flukes to-abdominal
cavity of rabbits and sheep

Larval flukes were transferred directly to
the abdominal cavities of 20 rabbits and 3
sheep, and the results of these experiments

VOL. 33, NO. 3

are given in Table 1. The data presented in
this table show that young flukes obtained
from one definitive host will, when trans-
ferred to a second definitive host, reach the
liver and become mature in the bile ducts.
These data also indicate that the average
time for the flukes to reach fertile maturity
in rabbits is somewhat less than in sheep,
the range being 62 to 99 (average 71) days
in rabbits and 79 to 101 (average 86) days
in sheep (includes period in first definitive
host). Since only three sheep were involved
in these experiments it is possible that had
a larger number of animals been used the
average time required for the flukes to ma-
ture might have been slightly less.

The importance of a sufficient flow of bile
for the fluke in the bile duct is shown by the
data for rabbit 1. These flukes although 88
days old when recovered were still im-
mature, being only 9 and 12 mm long, re-
spectively, when relaxed. They had lodged
in the minor, peripheral bile ducts of the
lobes of the liver, whereas the flukes which
make a normal growth are usually found in
the largest ducts.

Usually conspicuous points of entrance of
juvenile flukes are discernible on the liver
surface. The lesions persist for weeks, and
the ability to repair such damage seems
to vary considerably with different species.

Healing is more rapid and complete in ~

guinea pigs than in sheep and rabbits.

In order to ascertain whether the transfer
of immature flukes from one host animal to
another affected the rate of maturity, en-
cysted metacercariae were administered per
os to three rabbits and one sheep. The first
rabbit received 11 cysts; eggs appeared in
the feces 66 days later and 1 fluke was re-
covered at necropsy. The second rabbit
received 17 cysts; eggs appeared in the feces
in 69 days, and six flukes were recovered at
necropsy. The third rabbit received 40
cysts; eggs appeared in the feces in 81 days,
and six flukes were recovered at necropsy.
The sheep (no. 12039) received 130 cysts;
eggs appeared in the feces in 75 days, and 21
mature flukes were recovered from the bile
ducts when the animal was necropsied 30
days later. ;

The results of these experiments parallel

Mar. 15, 1943 KRULL AND JACKSON: ROUTE OF MIGRATION OF LIVER FLUKE

those obtained by direct transfer of the
immature flukes and show that the time
required for reaching maturity is not ma-
terially affected by the manipulations neces-
sary during the transfers.

2. Direct transfer of immature flukes to the pleural
cavity of rabbits

Since the liver fluke has been reported on
a number of occasions from abnormal loca-
tions, even under circumstances indicating
prenatal infection,” the prevailing opinion is
that in order for the flukes to reach unusual
locations they must be transported by the
circulation. In order to secure information
on this point, limited experiments were con-
ducted as follows:

Four 30-day-old larval flukes spuiined
from the liver of a mouse were transferred

2 One case of liver fluke infection was observed
in the vicinity of Logan, Utah, in a 6-weeks-old
calf; the flukes were all mature.

to the thoracic cavity of a fully grown rab-
bit. This animal was examined two months
later and the thoracic organs appeared
normal; examination of the liver, how-
ever, revealed a single specimen of F. he-
patica, 20 mm long by 7 mm wide, in one
of the bile ducts. In a second rabbit, about
one-fourth grown, two 22-day-old flukes
were transferred to the thoracic cavity; this
animal was examined a month later and a
single fluke 25 mm long by 6.5 mm wide that
had just reached maturity was recovered
from the liver. A typical entrance point was
observed in the liver capsule indicating that
the fluke had reached the liver by migration.

A third rabbit, almost fully grown, re-
ceived by direct transfer into the thoracic
cavity four 30-day-old flukes. A week later
this animal developed paralysis of the hind
quarters and died a week after the symp-
toms appeared. On examination one lung
was found to be hemorrhagic, a portion of

TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF INFECTIONS OF FASCIOLA HEPATICA IN RABBITS AND SHEEP PRODUCED BY THE DIRECT
TRANSFER OF IMMATURE FLUKES TO THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY

Age of

Age of flukes

Animal Source of Length of flukes at Flukes IDEA GS at time of Bayete a Flukes
designation flukes flukes time of transferred 2 Sze oviproduc- Doster sabre recovered
in feces® = or sheep
transfer tion6
Mm Days Number Days Days Days Number
Rabbit 1 Mouse = 7 2 0 — 81 21
Rabbit 2 do = 8 3 66 74 76 1
Rabbit 3 Mice 1.0-1.5 8 2 66 74 73 2
Rabbit 4 Mouse 1.0-1.5 9 2 61 70 66 if
Rabbit 5 do 33-(U) se 16 3 52 68 55 3
Rabbit 6 do 3.0+ 16 11 50 66 63 11
Rabbit 7 do = 16 5 54 70 66 4
Rabbit 8 do = 9 2 0 — 78 0
Rabbit 9 Mice 2.0-4.0 20 8 45 65 58 8
Rabbit 10 Mouse 1.0-1.5 8 6 0 — 35 61
Rabbit 11 do 6.5-8.0 28 3 34 62 36 2
Rabbit 12 do 6.5-8.0 28 3 44 42 62 2
Rabbit 13 do 6.5-8.0 28 1 44 a2 64 il
Rabbit 14 do 6.5-8.0 28 3 34 62 62 1
Rabbit 15 do 6.5-8.0 Dh 4 —_ — 15 3!
Rabbit 16 do 6.5-8.0 30 4 46 76 88 3
Rabbit 17 Mice — 30 4 — — 19 21
Rabbit 18 Guinea pig 8.0 29 1 — — Hil 0
Rabbit 19 do 6.0 ol 2 — — 99 2
Rabbit 20 do 6.0 31 3 68 99 68 2
Sheep 12023 Mice less than 1.0 5 15 74 79 697 =
Sheep 12083 do 1.0-2.0 11 41 90 101 100 103
Sheep 12026 do 2.0-4.0 20 4s4 59 79 77 17

1 Immature.
2 Animal not destroyed, fluke eggs still numerous.
3 Some flukes immature.

4 Transfer made through cannula; some young flukes may have been lost.

5 Days in rabbit or sheep.
6 Total days in mouse or guinea pig and rabbit or sheep.

the pericardium was thickened and con-
gested, and the thymus was hemorrhagic
with adhesions between it and the thoracic
wall. No flukes were recovered directly from
the organs, but one specimen that showed
considerable growth was recovered from the
water in which the thoracic organs were
manipulated. It is assumed that the paraly-
sis occurring in this case was the result of
the fluke infection as no cases of this sort
have occurred during several years in the
rabbit colony from which this animal was
obtained.

In the fourth experiment three 27-day-old
flukes were transferred to the thoracic
cavity of a mature rabbit. This animal died
22 days after the transfer. On necropsy the
parietal pleura in the region of the operative
Opening was roughened, and there were
small hemorrhages in the intercostal mus-
cles. Flecks and strands of fine connective
tissue were present on the surface of the
lung and areas of scar tissue were observed
in the lung tissue which were probably the
result of injuries caused by the migrating
flukes. The pleural sac was ruptured me-
dially posterior and dorsal to the heart and
a portion of the lung had passed through
this opening and had become strangulated.
The strangulated portion of the lung was
consolidated and was showing evidence of
necrosis; adhesions and connective tissue
deposits were present in this region. No
flukes were recovered from this animal.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

These experimental data show that, if
juvenile flukes reach the peritoneal cavity
of rabbits and sheep, they migrate to the
liver, penetrate the capsule and paren-
chyma, enter the bile ducts, and mature.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Furthermore, it is shown that entrance
through the bile duct is precluded as neces-
sary in the infection of rabbits and sheep;

however, it is not eliminated as a possible —

infection route. In view of the experiments
recorded in this paper, particularly those
concerning the transfer of flukes to the
thoracic cavity, and because of the large
size of some of the flukes transferred, the
circulatory system as a transfer route also
is precluded as being necessary; however, a
source of blood seems to be essential for
survival; the juvenile flukes are able to
secure blood because of their ability to pene-

trate tissues. Since 78 percent (56 flukes) of —

the 72 juvenile flukes used in the transfer
experiments with rabbits were recovered
in necropsies, there is reason to believe that
infection via the peritoneal cavity is the
principal, if not the sole route, of infection.

The limited experiments involving the —

transfer of juvenile flukes to the thoracic
cavity indicate that obscure symptoms of
disease, or death, may be traced to liver
flukes, even though the flukes themselves
may not always be recoverable.

LITERATURE CITED

Buace, G. Die Wanderungen der Leberegel in
den Organen der Schlachttiere. Berlin
Tierarztl. Wchnschr. 51 (5): 65-68, figs.
1-4. 1935.

Suaw, J.N. Studies of the liver fluke (Fasciola
hepatica). Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc.
81: 76-82. 1932.

Surat, M. The biological observation on the
cysts of Fasciola hepatica and the route of
migration of young worms in the final host.
Sci. Rep. Govt. Inst. Infect. Dis., Tokyo,
6: 511-523. 1927.

Sinitsin, D.F. New observations on the biology
of Fasciola hepatica. Centralbl. Bakt. I
Abt. Orig. 74: 280-285. 1914.

VOL. 33, NO. Sm

Mar. 15, 1943

ZOOLOGY.—Pycnogonida of the Bartlett collections.

HEDGEPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 83

JOEL W. HEpDGPETH.

(Communicated by Watpo L. ScumMirTT.)

Most of the pycnogonids collected by
Capt. Robert A. Bartlett in Greenland and
Arctic America up to the year 1935 were
sent to Dr. Louis Giltay, formerly of the
Royal Museum of Natural History, Brus-
sels, Belgium, who prepared a short manu-
script on them. Unfortunately Dr. Giltay
died before the manuscript was ready for
the printer.? At the request of Dr. Waldo L.
Schmitt, I have prepared this paper on the
pycnogonids taken by Captain Bartlett in
the Arctic and have included the identifica-
tions made by Dr. Giltay, which are desig-
nated by an asterisk.

Although the collections made by Cap-
tain Bartlett from the coasts of Greenland
add no new species to the known fauna of
that region, those from Fox Basin represent
a hitherto unreported region for these ani-
mals. The specimens from Fox Basin com-
prise the most extensive collection of pyc-
nogonids from the American Arctic that
has yet been made. Heretofore, our knowl-
edge of this fauna has been supplied prin-
cipally by Cole’s list (1921) of three species
from Dolphin and Union Strait, a single
record of Nymphon serratum from James
Bay (Giltay, 1942), and the earlier records
by Rodger (1893) from the coast of Labra-
dor.

Of the 14 species represented in the Bart-
lett collections 9 are from Fox Basin. These
are all well-known Arctic species whose
previously established distribution is sum-
marized in Stephensen’s (1933) excellent
paper on Greenland pycnogonids. American
Arctic pycnogonids are still poorly repre-
sented in our collections, however, and it is
certain that future collecting will add many
species to our lists.

I have not seen the material identified by
Dr. Giltay. As his manuscript consisted
only of identifications, I am responsible for
the synonymies, remarks, and arrange-
ments of this paper. All the specimens, ex-

1 Received December 28, 1942.

2 Dr. Louis Giltay died on July 25, 1937. A
biographical notice with bibliography was pub-
lished by V. van Straelen in Bull. Mus. Roy. Hist
Nat. Belgique 14 (23). (1938).

cept where otherwise noted, were procured
by Captain Bartlett on personally spon-
sored expeditions. The localities from which
pycnogonids were secured are listed in
geographic sequence from north to south,
beginning with Fox Basin (Fig. 1.) The col-
lections, with the exception of two lots
taken by the Hudson Bay Fisheries Ex-
pedition of 1930 on a steam trawler, the
S. S. Loubyrne, are in the United States
National Museum.

Family NYMPHONIDAE Wilson, 1878
Genus Boreonymphon G. O. Sars, 1891
Boreonymphon robustum (Bell)

Boreonymphon robustum Stephensen, 1933, pp.
A—5, fig. 1 (map); p. 38, fig. 11.
Localities—Walrus grounds, Murchison

Sound, NW. Greenland, app. 77°45’N., sta-

tion 124, Aug. 7, 1938, 1 large 92, encrusted

with sponges, hydroids, and foraminifers.
King Francis Josef Fjord, NE. Greenland,

No. 6A, Aug. 4, 1936, 1 specimen.
Distribution. —A widely distributed Arctic

species, perhaps circumpolar but not yet known
from between latitudes 120° W. and 160° E. It
is often taken in considerable numbers. Steph-
ensen (p. 38) suggests that this species may live
on Umbellula encrinus and other corals.

Genus Nymphon J. C. Fabricius, 1794
Nymphon hirtipes Bell

Nymphon hirtipes Wilson, 1878, pp. 22-23, pl.

5, figs. 2-3; pl. 6, fig. 2a—k.

Nymphon hirtum Wilson, 1880, pp. 495-497,

pl. 7, figs. 38-41.

Chaetonymphon hirtipes Sars, 1891, pp. 103-

LOW ple chi fies Jak.

Chaetonymphon hirtipes Cole, 1921, p. 4.
Chaetonymphon hirtipes Stephensen, 1933, pp.

8-9, figs. 2, 10 (maps).

Localities —*Entrance to Fury and Hecla
Straits, Sept. 3, 1933, 30 fathoms, 3 specimens
(Norcross-Bartlett Expedition).

*Hast end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay,
75° 40’ N., 78° 50’ W., station 7, Aug. 3, 1935,
140-210 fathoms, bottom sample, gravel, 39
specimens (incl. ovig. @).

SS TY

EFFIE

a
we

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 3

Oo123

45 10
Scale of miles (app)

-Chalon

Robertson Bay

EUAN Cormick Bay
Die eas : YY,

RISSEY—

j Northumberland >
<\y

ari E Granville Bay

ron
ae Carey Is Meee aty

Saunder Ia. Ya

Dalrymple Rock @

Wostenholme Id.

P| Peary
4 Monuments Cape York

Dudley Digges
ae

In
Sony Qizo
S

Hudson Bay ;
JV. Hedgpeth, del.

Fig. 1.—A, Detail of NW. Greenland, showing localities represented in the Bartlett collections;

B, The American Arctic

(only those localities from which pycnogonids have been collected are indi-

cated). *Type locality of Boreonymphon robustum (approximate;
@Type locality of Colossendets proboscidea (approximate).

probably also of Nymphon hirtipes).

A Pe See eae Re ad

Mar. 15, 1943

*Thule, North Star Bay, NW. Greenland,
76° 32’ N., 68° 45’ W., Aug. 27, 1932, 12 fath-
oms, | specimen (Peary Memorial Expedition).

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.
Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 124, Aug.
7, 1938, otter trawl, 5 specimens.

Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app.
71 43’ N., station 134, Aug. 7, 1938, otter
trawl, 1 specimen.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.
Greenland, app. 77° 38’ N., station 146, Aug. 8,
1938, otter trawl, 5 specimens. |

Along west side of Wolstenholme Island, sta-
tion 43, July 23, 1940, 12 fathoms, 1 specimen.

Between north shore of Parker Snow Bay
and Conical Rock, NW. Greenland, station 25,
July 22, 1940, 25-45 fathoms, +7 specimens.

Off Conical Rock, NW. Greenland, 76° 3’ N..,
67° 30’ W., station 76, July 29, 1938, dredged,
=o.

One mile northwest of Conical Rock, NW.
Greenland, station 37, July 22, 1940, 25-60
fathoms, 7 specimens.

*Angmagsalik, SE. Greenland, Aug. 30, 1930,
dredge, 1 specimen.

Off SE. Greenland, 61° N., 62° 30’ W., sta-
tion 166, Aug. 24, 1939, mite trawl, mud and
pebbles, 5 specimens.

Prince Christian Sound, SE. Greenland,
61° 10’ N., station 175, Aug. 25, 1939, 80-90
fathoms, otter trawl, 2 specimens.

Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 207,
Aug. 25, 1939, 40-100 fathoms, otter trawl, 1
specimen.

*NE. Greenland, 74° 21’ N., 16° 30’ W.,
July 29, 1931, 120 fathoms, 1 specimen (Nor-
cross-Bartlett Expedition).

*NE. Greenland, 74° 04’ N., 17° 58’ W.,
July 30, 1931, 120 fathoms, 4 specimens (Nor-
cross-Bartlett Expedition).

Distribution.—An Arctic and boreal-Arctic
species, widely distributed in the northern At-
lantic and from Kara Sea to NW. Greenland
in the Arctic. Cole’s record from Dolphin and
Union Strait is the westernmost record. It is
known also from eastern United States, Halifax
to Massachusetts Bay (Wilson). Apparently
it is not circumpolar. Other hitherto unpub-
lished records are Baldwin-Ziegler Polar Ex-
pedition, June, 1901, Aberdare Channel, east
of Alger Island, Franz Josef Land, 7 specimens;
and station 19, S. 8S. Loubyrne, Hudson Bay

HEDGPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 85

Fisheries Expedition, 61° 11’ N., 90° W., Au-
gust 15, 1930, 75 fathoms, mud and stones, 1
specimen.

Nymphon brevitarse Kroéyer

Nymphon brevitarse Stephensen, 1933, pp. 10-11.

Localities.—*SE. corner of Fox Basin, 66°
46’.N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 34-37 fath-
oms, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land
Expedition).

South shore of Southampton Island, Hudson
Bay, 63° 10’ N., 85° 25’ W., station 3, Aug. 3,
1933, from floating seaweed, 1 specimen (Nor-
cross-Bartlett Expedition).

Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon,
NW. Greenland, station 29, Aug. 2, 1937, 25-40
fathoms, rocky bottom, 3 specimens.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.
Greenland, 77° 45’ N., station 127, Aug. 7, 1938,
1 specimen.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.
Greenland, app. 77° 38’ N., station 146, Aug. 8,
1938, 1 specimen.

Distribution.—An Arctic species, from Spits-
bergen to NW. Greenland and Fox Basin. From
shallow water, not more than 50 fathoms.
Rodger (1893) reports the species from the
Straits of Belle Isle. One specimen was col-
lected by the Baldwin-Ziegler Expédition in
Aberdare Channel, Franz Josef Land.

Nymphon grossipes (O. Fabricius?) Kréyer

Nymphon grossipes Stephensen, 1933, pp. 11-
we

Localities —*Fox Basin, 66° 30’ N., 80° W.,
Aug. 10, 1927, 14 specimens (Putnam Baffin
Land Expedition).

Fox Basin, 66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10, 1927,
4 specimens. Identified by Giltay as N. miz-
tum, a synonym of JN. grossipes. (Putnam
Baffin Land Expedition.)

Southeast corner of Fox Basin, 66° 46’ N.,
79° 15’ W., Aug. 18, 1927, 34-37 fathoms,
dredge, 1 specimen. Identified by Giltay as N.
mixtum. (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition.)

*Southeast corner of Fox Basin, 66° 46’ N.,
79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 37 fathoms, dredge,
15 specimens (incl. ovig. &@o@) (Putnam
Baffin Land Expedition).

*Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24-25, 1927, 25
fathoms, 10 specimens CP diamaaa Battin hand
Expedition).

*Fox Basin, Aug. 26, 1927, 25-31 fathoms, 1
specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).

East end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay,
75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W., Aug. 3, 19385, 140-210
fathoms, gravel, 1 specimen. Identified by
Giltay as N. mixtum.

*South end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay,
75° 40’ N., 78° 58’ W., Aug. 4, 1935, 48-80
fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen.

*South end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay,
75° 40’ N., 78° 59’ W., Aug. 4, 1935, 68-120
fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen.

Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon,
NW. Greenland, station 27, Aug. 2, 1937, 25-
40 fathoms, rocky, 3 specimens.

*Walrus feeding grounds, 5 miles north of
Cape Chalon, Prudhoe Land, NW. Greenland,
July 27, 1932, 1 specimen.

Murchison Sound, NW. Greenland, app.
77° 45’ N., station 126, Aug. 7, 1938, otter
trawl, 1 specimen.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.
Greenland, app. 77° 38’ N., station 146, Aug. 8,
1938, 1 specimen.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.
Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 124, Aug. 7,
1938, otter trawl, 3 specimens.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.
Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 127, Aug. 7,
1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen.

Northumberland Island, NW. Greenland,
station 49, Aug. 7, 1937, dredge, 1 specimen.

*Northumberland Island, NW. Greenland,
Aug. 1926, 1 specimen.

Off Dalrymple Rock, Wostenholme Sound,
July 22, 1926, 2 specimens (1 ovig. @).

Off northwest shore of Wostenholme Island,
NW. Greenland, station 57, July 23, 1940, 13-
25 fathoms, 1 specimen.

Off Wostenholme Island, NW. Greenland,
station 44, July 23, 1940, 13-17 fathoms, 1
specimen.

Off Wostenholme Island, NW. Greenland,
station 46, July 23, 1940, 138-17 fathoms, 1
specimen.

One mile northwest of Conical Rock, NW.
Greenland, station 38, July 23, 1940, 25-60
fathoms, dredge, 1 specimen.

Kerkoliak, Salve Island, Melville Bay, NW.
Greenland, Aug. 28, 1932, dredge, 1 specimen.
Identified by Giltay as N. miztum.

Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 207,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 3

Aug. 25, 1939, 40-100 fathoms, otter trawl, 2
specimens.

Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 196,
Aug. 25, 1939, 60—70 fathoms, 1 specimen.

Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 218,
Aug. 25, 1939, 60-70 fathoms, 3 specimens.

*Clavering Fjord, NE. Greenland, Aug. 2,
1930, 1 specimen.

Nymphon mixtum Kroyer and N. glaciale
Sars can not be separated from N. grossipes, as
Stephensen (p. 12) has shown, and I concur
with his synonymy.

Distribution.—A widely distributed and very

variable species, found on the North American ~

coast as far south as Long Island Sound on the
east and Puget Sound on the west. It is circum-
polar, Arctic, and boreal-Arctic; littoral to
+500 fathoms.

Nymphon longitarse Kroyer

Nymphon longitarse Norman, 1908, pp. 212-
213.

Nymphon longitarse Cole, 1921, p. 4.

Nymphon longitarse Stephensen, 1933, pp. 13-
14, fig. 3 (map).

Nymphon longitarse Losina-Losinsky, 1933, pp.
67-68.

Nymphon longitarst Hilton, 1942a, pp. 3-4.
Locality.—Frobisher Bay, Baffin Land, about

60 fathoms, 1 specimen.
Distribution.—A boreal-Arctic species, widely

distributed from the coasts of Norway and

Britain in Europe to Cape Cod on the American ~

coast (rarely south to about lat. 40° N., but not
to Cape Hatteras as suggested by Norman in
his distribution table, p. 199). It is also cir-

cumpolar, having been recorded from Point —

Barrow (Cole) and from eastern Siberian waters
(Losina-Losinsky). Hilton lists its from Kodiak

and “Alaskan waters.” It is a littoral to sublit- q

toral species.

Nymphon sluiteri Hoek

Nymphon sluitert Cole, 1921, pp. 3-4.
Nymphon sluitert Stephensen, 1933, p. 14, fig. 4

(map).

Localities —*East end of Cobourg Island,
Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 55’ W., Aug. 3,
1935, 150-280 fathoms, muddy, 1 specimen.

Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon,
NW. Greenland, station 29, Aug. 2, 1937, 25—
40 fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen (juv.).

Mar. 15, 1943

Distribution.—A circumpolar Arctic species,
found in shallow water in the high Arctic and
in deeper water in the southern part of its
range (Faroes and Jan Mayen). Several speci-
mens were collected by the Baldwin-Ziegler
Polar Expedition in Aberdare Channel, Franz
Josef Land, June, 1901.

Nymphon sluitert has also been collected in
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where two specimens
were dredged by Dr. Georges Préfontaine at
Trois Pistoles, Quebec, in 200 meters, July,
1932 (U.S.N.M. 66540). This appears to be the
southernmost record for this species. It does
not appear to reach New England waters as do
other Arctic species like Nymphon hirtipes and
Pseudopallene circularis. Possibly its occurrence
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence is rare or sporadic.

Nymphon elegans Hansen

Nymphon elegans Stephensen, 1933, p. 17.

Localities —Fox Basin, 45 miles east of Cape
Dorchester, Aug. 8, 1927, 1 specimen (Putnam
Baffin Land Expedition).

*Southeast corner Fox Basin, 66° 45’ N.,
79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 34-37 fathoms,
dredge, 5 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Ex-
pedition).

*Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24-25, 1927, 25
fathoms, 3 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land
Expedition).

*Fox Basin, Aug. 26, 1927, 25-31 fathoms,
dredge, 2 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Ex-
pedition).

*Fox Basin, 66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10,
1927, 6 specimens (Putnam Baffin' Land Ex-
pedition).

*Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N., 80° 07’ W., Aug.
1927, dredge, 2 specimens (Putnam Baffin
Land Expedition).

*Hast end of Cobourg Island, Baffin Bay,
75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W., Aug. 3, 1935, 140-210
fathoms, gravel, 10 specimens.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, NW.
Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 124, Aug. 7,
1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen.

Distribution——An Arctic species, from the
Kara Sea to W. Greenland, and Fox Basin.
Usually taken in somewhat deeper water, i.e.,
about 100-300 fathoms.

Nymphon serratum G. O. Sars

Nymphon serratum Stephensen, 1933, pp. 18-19.

HEDGPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 87

Nymphon serratum Giltay, 1942, p. 459.

Localities —*Southeast corner Fox Basin,
66° 46’ N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 18, 1927, 34-37
fathoms, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin
Land Expedition).

Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon,
NW. Greenland, station 29, Aug. 2, 1937, 25-
40 fathoms, rocky, 1 specimen.

Walrus grounds, Murchison Sound, app. 77°
45’ N., station 124, Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl,
1 specimen.

Whale Sound, NW. Greenland, Jar H, July
28, 1937, rocky bottom, 1 specimen.

One mile northwest of Conical Rock, station
37, July 22, 1940, 25-60 fathoms, 1 specimen.

West Greenland, 70° 20’ N., 56° W., June 12,
1884, Ensign C. 8. McLain, U.S.N., coll., 1
specimen.

Distribution —An Arctic, sublittoral species
from Kara Sea to W. Greenland and Hudson
Bay (Giltay). Another specimen from Hudson
Bay was taken by the 8.8. Loubyrne (Hudson
Bay Fisheries Expedition), station 31, Aug. 22,
1930, 41 fathoms, gravel. It is occasionally
taken in the Atlantic just south of Wyville-
Thomson Ridge (Stephensen).

Fig. 2
Nymphon megalops Stephensen, 1933, p. 19.

Localities —*Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N., 80° 07’
W., Aug., 1927, dredge, 2 specimens. Identified
by Giltay as N. sarst. (Putnam Baffin Land
Expedition.)

Nymphon megalops G. O. Sars

Fig. 2.—Right chela (reversed) of Nymphon
megalops, showing rounded outgrowth.

Between Cape Alexander and Cape Chalon,
NW. Greenland, Jar W, Aug. 2, 1937, 1 specimen.

Walrus feeding ground, Murchison Sound,
NW. Greenland, app. 77° 42’ N., station 135,
Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 2 specimens. —

There seems to be no significant difference
between this species and Meinert’s (1899, pp.

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

48-49) Nymphon sarsi. The right chela of the
specimen (<) from between Cape Alexander
and Cape Chalon has a large rounded deformity
(iig2 2).

Distribution.—An Arctic species, from west-
tern Norway to Fox Basin; south to about
61° 30’ N., in the Faroe Channel. Usually from
deep water.

Family PALLENIDAE Wilson, 1878
Genus Pseudopallene Wilson, 1878

For reasons to be discussed in detail in an-
other paper, the use of Phozichilus Latreille
(hitherto used for Endeis Philippi by practi-
cally all authors) for Pseudopallene Wilson as
recommended by Norman (1908, pp. 231-233)
and Marcus (1940, p. 128) is rejected as an
unnecessary confusion. It is much simpler to
abandon Phowichilus entirely.

Pseudopallene spinipes (O. Fabricius)

Pseudopallene spinipes Stephensen, 1933, p. 21.

Localities—East end of Cobourg Island,
Baffin Bay, 75° 40’ N., 78° 40’ W., station 8b,
Aug. 3, 1935, 140-200 fathoms, gravel, 1 speci-
men.

Off Cape Farewell, S. Greenland, station 197,
Aug. 25, 1939, 60-70 fathoms, 1 specimen.

Off Cape Farewell, 8. Greenland, station 208,
Aug. 25, 1939, 60-70 fathoms, washed from sea-
weed, 1 specimen.

Distribution—An Arctic species, from wes-
tern Norway, Kara Sea, Franz Josef Land,
and West Greenland; sublittoral.

Pseudopallene circularis (Goodsir)

Pseudopallene circularis Stephensen, 1933, pp.

20-21.

Localities.—Southern part of Fox Basin,
66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10, 1927, 2 specimens
(Putnam Bafhn Land Expedition).

Southern part of Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N., 80°
07’ W., Aug. 12, 1927, 32-37 fathoms, dredge, 1
specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).

*Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24-25, 1927, 25
fathoms, dredge, 3 specimens (Putnam Baffin
Land Expedition).

*Fox Basin, Aug. 25, 1927, 25-31 fathoms,
dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land Ex-
pedition).

‘Southern part of Fox Basin, 66° 43’ N.
80° 07’ W., Aug., 1927, dredge, 1 specimen
(Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).

Walrus feeding grounds, Murchison Sound,

NW. Greenland, app. 77° 42’ N., station 135,

Aug. 7, 1938, otter trawl, 1 specimen.

Walrus feeding grounds, Murchison Sound,
NW. Greenland, app. 77° 45’ N., station 127,
Aug. 7, 1938, 1 specimen.

Just back of Cape Farewell, S. Greenland
station 210, Aug. 25, 1939, 70 fathoms, 1 speci-
men.

Distribution.—A boreal-Arctic species, from
Okhotsk Sea to West Greenland, south to the
Firth of Forth and southern Norway on the
coast of Europe and to Cape Cod in American
waters; littoral to shallow water. It is much
smaller in the southern parts of its range.

Family AMMOTHEIDAE Dohrn, 1881
Genus Eurycyde Schiédte, 1857
Eurycyde hispida (Kroyer)

Eurycyde hispida Stephensen, 1933, p. 27.
Localities —*Southern part of Fox Basin,
66° 30’ N., 80° W., Aug. 10, 1927, 2 specimens
(Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).
*Southeast corner Fox Basin, 66° 46’ N.,
79° 15’ W., Aug. 12, 1927, 34-37 fathoms
specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).

*Center of Fox Basin, Aug. 24, 1927, 25

fathoms, 13 specimens (Putnam Baffin Land
Expedition).

*Fox Basin, 67° 45’ N., 79° 09’ W., Aug. 24,
1927, 38 fathoms, 3 specimens (2 ovig. & <)
(Putnam Baffin Land Expedition). :

*Fox Basin, Aug. 26, 1927, 25-31 fathoms, 2
specimens (Putnam Baffin Land Expedition).

*Fox Basin, 67° 438’ N., 80° 07’ W., Ausg.,

1927, dredge, 3 specimens (Putnam Baffin”

Land Expedition).

Walrus feeding grounds, Murchison Sound,
NW. Greenland, app. 77° 42’ N., station 136,
Aug. 7, 1938, 1 specimen.

Distribution.—An Arctic, littoral to sublit-
toral species, ranging from the Kara Sea to

Baffin Land and Greenland (Stephensen) and — q
as far south as Kristiansund on the Norwegian

coast. It is unknown from Iceland.

Family COLOSSENDEIDAE Hoek, 1881
Genus Colossendeis Jarzynsky, 1870
Colossendeis proboscidea (Sabine)

Colossendeis proboscidea Stephensen, 1933, p.
28, fig. 6 (map).
Locality.—*Southeast corner Fox Basin, 66°

VOWGoor NO. 3 ‘

Mar. 15, 1943

46’ N., 79° 15’ W., Aug. 13, 1927, 34-37 fath-
oms, dredge, 1 specimen (Putnam Baffin Land
Expedition).

Distribution.—Possibly a circumpolar Arctic
Basin species, from shallow water to about 500
fathoms. Unknown outside of Arctic waters
(Stephensen).

ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REMARKS

The status of our present knowledge of
the distribution of pycnogonids in the
American Arctic is summarized in Table 1.
There are undoubtedly many more species
in this sector; Stephensen (1933, pp. 32-83)
lists at least 30 species from the waters west
of Greenland alone, and the 14 species in
the table are but half that number. While
this is a considerable addition to the 6 spe-
cies mentioned by Cole (1921, p. 5) for the
region, our records from the north of Can-
ada are far from extensive, and the locali-
ties represented are remarkably few. It is
worthy of note that the American Arctic is
the type locality for two of the character
species of the Arctic Basin, Boreonymphon
robustum and Colossendeis proboscidea (Fig.
i B).

In recent preliminary papers, Hilton
(1942a, b) has listed some pycnogonids from
the Bering Sea and Alaskan waters that
may establish the cireumpolar distribution
of certain well-known Arctic species when
more adequately identified. Although it is

HEDGPETH: PYCNOGONIDA OF BARTLETT COLLECTIONS 89

impossible, from the preliminary diagnoses,
to recognize or identify any of the species

_mentioned ‘in these papers, the occurrence

of Nymphon gracile Leach in Alaskan
waters (Hilton, 1942a, p. 7) is doubtful.
This might be Nymphon brevitarse; N. gra-
cile (sometimes confused with N. rubrum
Hodge or N. brevirostre Hodge, e.g., Nym-
phon gracile Sars, 1891, non Leach—see also
Stephensen, 1935, pp. 9-10) is a European
species, from Denmark to the Mediter-
ranean. “‘Nymphon gracillipes’”’ (stromt?) 1s
also listed (zbid., p. 4), from the Bering Sea
at Albatross station 3540 (Aug. 9, 1893,
56° 34’ 00” N., 167° 19’ 00” W., 57 fath-
oms). Two new species of Pseudopallene, P.
setosa and P. spinosa, are alluded to (Hilton,
1942b, p. 39), one or both of which might be
the variable Pseudopallene circularts.

LITERATURE CITED

Cots, L. J. Pycnogonida. Report Canadian
Arctic Expedition 1913-1918. 7 (F): 1-6.
1921.

Gintay, L. New records of Pycnogonida from
the Canadian Atlantic coast. Journ. Fish.
Res. Board Canada 5 (5): 459-460. 1942.

Hiuron, W. A. Pantopoda. Pantopoda chiefly
from the Pacific. Pomona Journ. Ent. and
Zool. 34(1): 3-7. 1942a.

. Pantopoda (Continued). Ibid. 34(2):
38-41. 1942b.

Losina-Losinsky, L. K. Pantopoda vostoch-
nykh morei S. S. S. R. Inst. Issled. Morei
§. S. S. R. (Leningrad) 17: 43-80, 13 figs.
1933.

TABLE 1.—DisTRIBUTION OF PYCNOGONIDS IN THE AMERICAN ARCTIC (ExcLusiIvE OF WEST GREENLAND)

Baffin Land

Species Labrador |(and Cobourg] Hudson Bay | Fox Basin saat a 2m HOES ome
nion Strait Barrow records!
Island)
Boreonymphon robustum.....|...+++++++5: SoS eS 2S es vr ele, Sete arc Pi locka ucgen osm nie riicnc: Meni eto chen TB GE INT.
97° W.
Nymphon hirtipes.........-- < x x x
RCDULGUISC mus wikis «enw. 80) 8h Re aCe MIM bees, aicsae cpa easciges x
OPCRTHDES Slee hoa ee SK SO he sia ay sacha ease et Sato we Ne atc pena ats x
NEG TECLES CP e a tcuce icc abe a lisse bh eie elcues. ie « SCE AS Ai i epee scars apa eo as desis “sh ah sya x< x
HUI, 6 Meas Bene eee x Sa a | Pearcy aie tame [ey ase aca Ruatene SK
GATTO Se BS Cee x< SY ia al scenes Ror Seen x
QU ATLUTD c, ‘ca 0 OEM CIC FOE Gato er ohm ee) ioc cnicacO. CRCROECrcae x
TAG SIACIES AV Saeaeey Oo aaa Oct RO SOI | ccs RO neces Cane ace eenaC nC <
TOOROOO Eo Sa eb OUOrOrOe Cro Cet Ox Gi cenOrO Ie OIC x
PZSCUdOPAGILENE SPINUDES. . = ..2|-2+56-- += x
CURCULOTUS acs sche so ss = x SGU US ell exe Rae tecyoro <
Burycyde hispida. .......202)acc cece nee SGip rae crake aatesarants x
Colossendeis proboscidea....|....--+-+ +2 sfece cere cere s fees cece ee ces|ns Sg) Lia ON, Rete Tt, ct eRe ee a 75° Ni
100° W

1 Both of these records are type localities. Nymphon hirtipes probably has the same type locality as Boreonymphon robustum,
but I have not had access to the original paper to verify this. Both species were described by T. Bell in The Last of the Arctic voy-

ages, by Edward Belcher, vol. 2, pp. 400-411, 1855.

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Marcus, E. Os Pantopoda brasileiros e os
demais sul-americanos. Bol. Fac. Fil., Cien.
Letr. S. Paulo 19 (Zoologia 4): 3-179, figs.
1-17. 1940.

MEINERT, F. Pycnogonida. Danish Ingolf
Exp. 3(1): 1-71, pls. 1-5. 1899.

Norman, A. M. The Podosomata (=Pycno-
gonida) of the temperate Atlantic and Arctic
Oceans. Journ. Linn. Soc. London 30: 198-—
238, pls. 29-30. 1908.

Ropesr, A. Prelaminary account of natural
history collections made of a voyage to the Gulf
of St. Lawrence and Davis Straits. Proce.
Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 20: 154-163. 1893.

VOL. 33, NO. 3

Sars, G. O. Pycnogonidea. Norwegian
North Atlantic Exp. 6 (Zoology 20): 1-168,
plse lo. bao:

STEPHENSEN, K. Pycnogonida. Godthaab Ez-
pedition 1928. Meddel. Gronl. 79(6): 1-46,
12) figs: 1933:

Pycnogonida from Norway and adja-
cent waters. Bergens Museums Arbok 1935,
Naturv. rekke 7: 2-39, 1 fig. 1935.

Witson, E. B. Synopsis of the pycnogonida of
New England. Trans. Conn. Acad. 5:1—26,
Ve. Near IMSS

Report on the Pycnogonida of New

England and adjacent waters. Report U. 8.

Comm. Fish. 1878: 463-506, pls. 1-7. 1880.

ICHTHYOLOGY.—Notes on the affinity, anatomy, and development of Elops saurus

Linnaeus.}

C. Tate Regan in “A Revision of the
Fishes of the Genus Elops” (Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist. (ser. 8) 3: 37-40. 1909), among
other revisions, recognized the inhabitants
of this genus on the Pacific coast of America
as distinct from E. saurus of the Atlantic
coast, with which they had been considered
identical. He named the Pacific coast spe-
cies H. affinis. In the same paper, Regan
recognized the form with small scales (the
one with large scales being E. lacerta Cuvier
and Valenciennes) of the west coast of
Africa as also distinct from E. saurus, giving
it the name EL. senegalensis. Recently I have
studied many specimens of EF. saurus, in-
cluding growth series, ranging from lepto-
cephali with virtually undeveloped fins, ex-
cept for the forked caudal, to large adults.
The specimens were collected in many lo-
calities on the Atlantic coast of America
from Cape Cod to Recife, Brazil, and the
West Indian Islands. I have had for com-
parison several leptocephali and a moder-
ately large series of adults from several lo-
calities on the Pacific coast of America from
Guaymas, Mexico, to Payta, Peru; also
three adults from Elmina, Ashantee, Africa.
The validity of the species mentioned,
recognized as new by Regan, originally ap-
parently described from few specimens, has
been confirmed by this study.

Elops affinis seems to differ from LE.
saurus only in the greater number of gill
rakers, wherein FE. senegalensis agrees with
E. saurus, as shown by Table 1. However,

1 Received November 9, 1942.

SAMUEL F. HILDEBRAND, Fish and Wildlife Service.

the scales in a lateral series are fewer in E.
senegalensis than in E. saurus, as indicated
in Table 2. E. senegalensis differs from E.
saurus and E. affinis also in having fewer
vertebrae. Ten specimens of HE. saurus have,
respectively, 73, 74, 75, 75, 75, 77, 78, 79,
80, and 80 vertebrae in the main axis. Nine
leptocephali of the same species have, re-
spectively, 77, 78, 78, 78, 79, 80, 82, 82, and
82 myomeres (enumerations somewhat un-
certain because of indistinctness of myo-

-meres posteriorly). The only adult F. affinis

examined has 77 vertebrae, and six lepto-
cephali have, respectively, 76, 77, 79, 80,
and 81 myomeres. The single adult #.
senegalensis examined has 67 vertebrae.
These enumerations are in agreement with
those given in Dr. Regan’s revision.

So far as I know, the validity of Elops
affinis has not been questioned. On the other
hand, it was accepted by Meek and Hilde-
brand (Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool.
ser., 15 (1): 176. 1923), who compared sveci-
mens from the opposite coasts of Panama.

The situation with respect to Hlops sene-
galensis is somewhat different, as it has been
synonymized with EH. saurus, at least, by
Fowler (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 70
(1): 155. 1936), though accepted by Boul-
enger (Cat. Fresh-water Fish. Africa 4: 152.
1916). Although only three specimens from
Africa have been available to me for exam-
ination, it is evident from the many speci-
mens from the Atlantic coast of America
studied that the range i the number of
scales in the lateral series in American speci-

Mar. 15, 1943

mens does not include the African material
examined (see Table 2), nor that reported
upon by Regan, who gave a range of 94 to
98 scales in the lateral series. The specimen
of E. senegalensis examined for vertebrae by
me, as already stated, has 67 segments in
the main axis, which is essentially in agree-
ment with Regan, who gave 68 or 69. This
range, 67 to 69, in the number of vertebrae
in the African specimens, then is fully dis-
tinct from the range in 10 American speci-
mens, which is 73 to 80. Although no other
differences were found, there can be no
doubt on the basis of those set forth that the
African specimens are distinct from the
American ones. Therefore, E. senegalensis
stands as a valid species.

It may be noted, incidentally, that the
specimens from Payta, Peru (U.S.N.M.
88707), gives aslight extension of the known
range of Elops affinis, which previously ap-
parently has been recorded only from as far
south as ‘“‘Hcuador.”’ The range northward,
given as ‘“‘California’’ by Meek and Hilde-
brand (Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zool.
ser., 15: 177. 1923), apparently should have
been Lower California. The northernmost
locality from which I have seen specimens is
Guaymas, Mexico.

The air bladder in Elops saurus, which
has a very thin transparent wall, occupies
the full length of the abdominal cavity.
Ventrally it adheres to the alimentary canal
and dorsally to the body wall. Contrary to
Tarpon atlanticus, which has much cellular

HILDEBRAND: NOTES ON ELOPS SAURUS

tissue within the air bladder (see Babcock,
The tarpon, ed. 4: 50. 1936; and Hildebrand,
Sci. Monthly 44: 246, footnote. 1937), EZ.
saurus has none whatsoever. The air blad-
der of EL. saurus agrees essentially with that
of Albula vulpes, except that in the latter the
wall is somewhat thicker, and within the
bladder, at about midlength, are two small
kidney-shaped bodies of cellular tissue.

The alimentary canal in Elops saurus, ex-
cept for the stomach, which consists prin-
cipally of a large blind sac, is a straight tube
(see Fig. 1). The blind sac projects forward
to the throat. Throughout its length it lies
ventrally of the main canal and parallel
with it. A lobe of the liver, which occupies
the space between this projection and the
heart, forms a “‘hood’’ over its blind end.
Another lobe of the liver shields its left side,
while its right and ventral sides are covered
by a “‘comb”’ of caeca bound firmly together
with connective tissue. In the length of the
alimentary canal this species is in agreement
with Tarpon atlanticus and Albula vulpes,
and also as to the presence of a large blind
sac. However, in the two species mentioned
last, the blind sac of the stomach projects
backward instead of forward. In the pos-
session of numerous caeca H#. saurus and
T. atlanticus agree, and differ from A.
vulpes, which has only about 13.

The eggs and earliest stages of the lepto-
cephali of Elops saurus remain unknown.
The youngest larvae, judged principally by
the development of the fins, among the

TaBLE 1.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF GILL RAKERS IN ELops saurus, E.. AFFINIS, AND E.. SENEGALENSIS

Upper Limb Lower limb
Species

5 | 6 2 8 Se LON See LON te et Se ee eT e eGaie id, isi Tosi s20

| LFS 5 a oS a Oe ee 5 16 | 14 | 14 —|—| 5 Wb o|) TGS |) at ye TIS) 3 — = | = | =

LSGGS . 5 856i ee ee — }|— | — | — | — | 4 4 }—]—]—]—}]—|—} 2 3 4 Mh 3
LEP ATGICTSOS ES Se ae ae — 2 1}/—}—/]—J] — | — 1 2;—;]—|—]}]— — |—}|—

TABLE 2.— FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF SCALES IN LATERAL SERIES IN ELOpPs
SAURUS, EK. AFFINIS, AND EL). SENEGALENSIS
Oblique series counted just above lateral line
Species

92/93/94|95|96|97/98)|99} 100) 101] 102) 103/104] 105) 106) 107 | 108/109) 110)111)112)113)114)115)116/117|118)119)120

EPID TEES Sc rails) s),0 1656: 65-3 —|—|—|—|— /—|—|—| —} —}—} 1 }—| 2}11/2);2)'1);2)11);2)'1)'1)}1)/2+'—)1)};—) 1
LUDO Seine —|—|—|—|—|— | — |— — } —} — J} —} 1} —)} it} i} mm) 1} 8} 2 ym} —)] 1 ye] lt pel ele)

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

many at hand are, respectively, 34, 35, and
37 mm long. Although these specimens have
the forked caudal fin well developed, the
other fins remain undifferentiated. These
young larvae are also the most strongly
compressed, that is, the thinnest and most
unsubstantial ones in the collections stud-
ied. Two other larvae, although of about
the same length, 34.5 and 36.5 mm long,
are Slightly more advanced, as a thickening
within the finfolds indicates the develop-
ment of the dorsal and anal fins (see Fig. 2).

Figs. 1-3.—Elops saurus Linnaeus: 1, Diagram
of alimentary canal showing its forward-project-
ing blind sac with a ‘‘comb” of pyloric caeca; 2,
leptocephalus, one of the earliest stages known,
drawn from a specimen 35 mm long; 3, recently
transformed ‘‘young adult,’’ drawn from a speci-
men only 20 mm long. All drawings by Mrs.
Alice C. Mullen.

The largest leptocephali seen are, respec-
tively, 42, 42, and 44 mm long. These speci-
mens may represent about the maximum
length attained by the larvae. However, the
development at any particular length is
quite uneven, as already indicated, and
more clearly shown subsequently. The de-
velopment in these large larvae has pro-
gressed somewhat further than in those
previously mentioned, as the rays in the
dorsal and anal fins are somewhat differ-
entiated, the pectoral fins appear as tufts
of membrane and the development of pelvic
fins is suggested by thickened places in the
abdominal wall. A considerably older speci-

VOL. 33, NO. 3

men, “reduced” in length to 27 mm, has the
dorsal and anal fins sufficiently developed to
permit the enumeration of the rays, and the
pectorals show signs of rays, though the
pelvics remain undifferentiated. While the
body remains strongly compressed, it never-
theless has become more substantial. Other
specimens of the same length are more re-
tarded as the dorsal and anal rays are
scarcely differentiated.

In all the leptocephalus stages known the
head is strongly depressed, and the snout
viewed either ventrally or dorsally, is rather
sharply triangular. Pigmentation in pre-
served specimens consist of two series of
dark spots running the full length of the
abdomen, a row being situated on each side
of the alimentary canal, which in this spe-
cies, as in larval herring and other herring-
like fishes studied, is loosely attached to the
body.

The smallest young adult, that is, a speci-
men that has become rather robust, though
still more strongly compressed than fully
developed adults, with all the fins, except
the pelvics, well developed, is only 16 mm
long. This specimen represents the maxi-
mum shrinkage among the many young
studied. The rather numerous young adults
in the collections at hand show a wide range
in development. For example, a specimen
scarcely 20 mm long (see Fig. 3) is fully as
well developed as others around 30 mm
long. Then, there is a 30-mm specimen in
the collection that has advanced fully as
far in acquiring characters of the adult as
others 35 to 40 mm long. A great difference
in development of color also is evident. The
20-mm specimen, already mentioned, has
some of the silvery color of the adult, with
all the color markings of the leptocephalus
missing, whereas some specimens around
30 mm long remain pale, and retain the two
series of dark dots on the abdomen of the
juveniles already described.

The small, exceptionally advanced speci-
mens were all taken in brackish to nearly
fresh water pools and ponds, near the sea,
whereas the retarded specimens were taken
at sea. The indication, then, is that the en-
vironment greatly affects development.

Even though development is not uniform,

Mar. 15, 1943

it nevertheless may be stated that generally
when the leptocephali have become reduced
to a length of about 20 mm they are virtu-
ally young adults. At that stage the fins,
exclusive of the pelvics, are well developed,
considerable thickening of the body has
taken place, the outline of the gular plate is
visible under magnification, and usually
general pigmentation is under way. Scales
begin to appear at a length of about 50 mm
and by that time the teeth in the jaws,
which are in a single series in the lepto-
cephali, definitely are in bands. Scalation
and pigmentation are complete at a length
of 60 to 65 mm, and the young then are very
similar to full-grown adults.

The leptocephali of this species evidently
do not grow so large as those of Albula
vulpes, as the longest leptocephalus of Elops
saurus in the collections studied is only 44
mm long, whereas the largest one of A.
vulpes has a length of 70 mm, and many
others of that species are only slightly
shorter. Furthermore, the leptocephali of
A. vulpes have a rather heavier body. The
larvae of the two species are readily distin-
guishable by the shape of the head. In E.
saurus the head is rather broad and strongly
depressed, and the snout as seen from above
or from below is rather sharply triangular.
In A. vulpes the head is notably narrower,
not especially depressed, and the snout is
conical. The larvae may be distinguished,
also, by the number of myomeres, as EL.
saurus has about 77 to 82, whereas A. vulpes
has about 66 to 72. When the dorsal and
anal fins become sufficiently developed to
permit the enumeration of the rays, the spe-
cies are readily separated by the number of
rays, as EL. saurus has 21 to 25 dorsal and 14
to 17 anal rays, whereas A. vulpes has 14 to
17 dorsal, and only 8 or 9 anal rays.

The young of Tarpon atlanticus remain
largely unknown, only one specimen about
20 mm long (no longer extant) having been
described (Hildebrand, Copeia, 1934, No.
1: 45). This specimen was in the transition
stage. It was readily distinguishable from
both F. saurus and A. vulpes by the fewer
myomeres, of which only 52 were present,
and by the short dorsal with 12 rays and
the long anal with 20 rays.

HILDEBRAND: NOTES ON ELOPS SAURUS 93

The spawning season and the place where
Elops saurus spawns remain unknown.
However, ripe or nearly ripe fish have been
found. One female with large roe was caught
at Beaufort, N. C., on October 23, and 20
ripe or nearly ripe fish, consisting of 7 males
and 13 females, were taken in February on
the Canal Zone (Hildebrand, Zoologica 24:
25. 1939). These 20 fish were chosen at ran-
dom from hundreds that became stranded
when. the Gatun Locks were dewatered in
1935. As every fish examined, selected from
among the many present, contained gonads
in an advanced state of development, it per-
haps may be assumed that at least most of
many hundreds present were gravid fish. It
seems proper to conclude, therefore, that at
least some spawning takes place during our
winter months.

Leptocephali in the various stages of de-
velopment, already described, were col-
lected at Beaufort, North Carolina, during
January, February, March, April, May,
October, November, and December. Lepto-
cephali were collected in Texas, mostly at
Corpus Christi, in February, March, April,
and November. Others were taken in the
Florida Keys in November, and in Cuba
during May. Young adults, in or just past
the transition stage, were collected at Beau-
fort, N. C., in March, May, June, July, and
August; in Aransas Pass, Tex., in June; and
at Key West, Fla., in March and Novem-
ber. This wide spread of time over the year
of the capture of the young, even in one
locality, as at Beaufort, N. C., suggests
either that spawning takes place during
most of the year or that the development
is unequal.

If the slow development of the lepto-
cephali of the fresh-water eels may be used
as a criterion, even the youngest leptoceph-
ali of Elops saurus described may be several
months old. Also, if the life history is sim-
ilar to that of the eels the youngest larvae
of Elops saurus at hand may have been cap-
tured far from the place of their birth. It
apparently may be stated with some degree
of certainty that the early stages of the
leptocephali do not occur in the shallower
waters in the vicinity of Beaufort, N. C.,
where more or less advanced stages de-

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

scribed herein are moderately common. In
that vicinity intensive collecting with sev-
eral types of gear, was carried on during
every month over a period of many years
in the inshore waters and to a somewhat
lesser extent offshore to a depth of about
12 fathoms. The suggestion that spawning
probably takes place far offshore presents
itself.

Although no gravid examples of Albula
vulpes were seen, the leptocephali and young
adults were taken somewhere along the At-

VOL. 33, NO. 3

lantic and in the West Indies between Beau-
fort, N. C., and Panama, virtually through-
out the year (collections for October and
December only being missing). Many lepto-
cephali and young adults of this species
from the Pacific coast of Panama and a few
from Colombia taken during February,
March, and “autumn” also have been
examined. Therefore, the remarks as to
spawning made in the preceding pages prob-
ably apply equally as well to this species as
to Elops saurus.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

380TH MEETING OF THE BOARD
OF MANAGERS

The 380th meeting of the Board of Managers
was held in the library of the Cosmos Club on
January 11, 1943. President Curtis called the
meeting to order at 8:05 p.m., with 19 persons
present, as follows: H. L. Curtis, F. D. Ros-
stnI, H. S. Rappteyz, N. R. Smiru, R. J.
SEEGER, J. E. Grar, F. G. BricKWEppgE, F. C.
Kracek, A. Wermors, J. E. McMurtrey,
JR., W. A. Dayton, W. RAMBERG, E. W. PRICE,
L. W. Parr, C. L. Garnmr, H. G. Dorsry, and
by invitation G. A. Cooprr, A. SEIDELL, and
L. V. JUDSON.

The minutes of the 379th meeting were read
and approved.

President CurTIS announced appointment of
the following committee to obtain more sub-
scriptions of the JouRNAL from Government
bureaus: F. G. BrickwEppE (chairman),
W. W. Dient, and F. H. H. Rospzrts, Jr.

For the Committee on Membership, Chair-
man KracrExk presented nominations of 12
persons (11 resident and 1 nonresident).

The Committees on Awards for Scientific
Achievement for 1942, ALEXANDER WETMORE,
general chairman and chairman of the Com-
mittee for the Biological Sciences, H. N. Eaton,
chairman of the Committee for the Engineering
Sciences, and L. V. Jupson, chairman of the
Committee for the Physical Sciences, presented
the names of three candidates for the awards,
which were approved by the Board for an-
nouncement at the annual meeting of the
academy.

The Secretary reported three deaths, three
resignations, and three retirements.

The Board authorized the President to ap-
point a Committee on the A.A.A.S. Research
Grant for 1948, which will amount to $150 for
the Academy.

The meeting adjourned at 9:27 p.m.

FREDERICK D. Rossrn1, Secretary.

@bituaries

The death on July 138, 1942, of Henry
GRANGER KnicuT, chief of the Bureau of
Agricultural Chemistry and Engineering,
United States Department of Agriculture,
marked the passing of one of the most notable
and interesting figures among American agri-
cultural chemists. His 16 years as director of
three widely separated State experiment sta-
tions and his 15 years as chief of a Federal bu-
reau gave him an administrative experience in
agricultural chemistry that has few parallels
in the history of American science.

Knight was born on July 21, 1878, at Ben-
nington, Kans., on a prairie farm, from which
his parents moved a few years later to Port
Townsend on Puget Sound. He entered Wash-

ington State University at Seattle where he
earned his way by various activities. After ob-
taining his A.B. degree at Washington in 1902,
he spent one year as student and assistant in
chemistry at Chicago University, and then re-
turned to Washington as Assistant Professor of
Chemistry.

In 1904 Knight accepted the double appoint-
ment of professor of chemistry and State chem-
ist at the University of Wyoming, the duties of
which he resigned in 1910 to accept the direc-
torship of the Wyoming Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. His administrative duties were
further increased in 1911, when he was ap-
pointed dean of the Wyoming College of Agri-
culture. While at Wyoming Knight published

Mar. 15, 1943

four bulletins on the chemical composition of
Wyoming forage plants; he wrote bulletins
also on the death camass and woody aster,
plants poisonous to livestock. In 1916-17 he did
postgraduate work at the University of Illinois
for which he obtained his Ph.D. degree for a
thesis on acidity and acidimetry of soils. In
1918 Knight resigned his position in Wyoming
to accept the directorship of the Oklahoma Ex-
periment Station and the deanship of its school
of agriculture. Political disturbances caused
him to resign this position in 1921. After a
year’s postgraduate study at Cornell Univer-
sity as honorary fellow, Knight accepted a call
to the University of West Virginia as director
of its experiment station and in 1926 as dean
of its school of agriculture.

In 1927, when the U. S. Bureau of Soils and
the Fixed Nitrogen Laboratory were merged
with the research work of the Bureau of Chem-
istry, direction of the newly constituted Bu-
reau of Chemistry and Soils was awarded to
Dr. Knight, who had the courage to accept
what lack of homogeneity had caused others to
decline. Although he strove valiantly toward
welding a discordant collection of activities into
a unified bureau, the task was an impossible
one, the result being transfer of the soils, fer-
tilizer, and insecticides work to other bureaus.
These losses, although discouraging, were more
than counterbalanced by Knight’s acquiring
direction of four new regional research labora-
tories. It was while giving his last depleted re-
sources of mind and body to organizing these
laboratories for the needs of war that Henry
G. Knight paid the inevitable price.

Dr. Knight preferred to be recognized more
as an organizer and administrator of research
than as an actual contributor to science. His
extensive experience as a director of State ex-
periment stations helped greatly toward es-
tablishing more cordial relations between these
institutions and the Federal Department of
Agriculture. The extent of his influence within
the Department of Agriculture is indicated by
his membership in 12 intradepartmental com-
mittees. From 1930 to 1942 he served as chair-
man of the Editorial Committee for the Jour-
nal of Agricultural Research. He was president
of the American Institute of Chemists in 1933-
35, and in May 1941 received from Vice-
President Wallace the Institute’s gold medal

OBITUARIES 95

for outstanding accomplishments in agricul-
tural chemistry. Temperamentally he was a
man of jovial disposition who will long be held
in affectionate remembrance by a host of
friends.

C. A. BROWNE.

THomas Leonard WALKER, who died on
August 6, 1942, was born near Brampton, On-
tario, on December 30, 1867, of English parent-
age. His father, William Walker, was a native
of Whitby, England, while his mother, Hannah
Sanderson Walker, came from Scarborough,
England. He attended schools in both Bramp-
ton and Orangeville, Ontario, and then entered
Queen’s University, Kingston, from which he
received the silver medal in chemistry and the
degree of master of arts in 1890, and at a later
period the Gowan Prize in botany.

For a short time after his graduation from
Queen’s University he was employed as chem-
ist at the Murray Mine, and for two years was
laboratory demonstrator in the Faculty of
Mines, Queen’s University. He was awarded
one of the first 1851 Exhibition Scholarships
and continued his studies under Prof. F. Zirkel
in the University of Leipzig, where, in 1896, he
was awarded the degree doctor of philosophy.
At a later time he also continued his studies in
crystallography in the University of Heidel-
berg with Prof. Victor Goldschmidt.

In 1897 Dr. Walker was appointed assistant
superintendent of the Geological Survey of
India. While in India he made a scientific ex-
pedition across the high passes of the Hima-
layas into Tibet, making incidentally a collec-
tion of Himalayan mosses, many of which were
new to science.

In 1901 he returned to Canada to become
professor of mineralogy and petrography in the
University of Toronto, a position that he held
until his retirement in 1937. In 1913 the Royal
Ontario Museum of Mineralogy, Toronto, ap-
pointed him its first director. Through the years
Dr. Walker worked indefatigably for the Mu-
seum. By collecting, judicious purchase, and
exchange he built up a Museum of Mineralogy
that ranks among the best seven in the world.

Dr. Walker was one of the founders and the
first vice-president of the Mineralogical Society
of America, in 1920, and president in 1922. He
was a fellow of the Geological Society of

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

America (1903) and vice-president (1922 and
1931). He was made an honorary member of
the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and
Ireland in 1937 after being an ordinary member
since 1913. He was a fellow of the Royal Soci-
ety of Canada (1919) and president of Section
IV (Geological Sciences) 1927-28; a fellow of
the Geological Society of London; fellow of the
Royal Geological Society of Cornwall; member
of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metal-
lurgy; and a member of this Society. For many
years he was a member of the committee on the
measurement of geologic time in the National
Research Council (United States).

He was an indefatigable worker and accom-
plished much that was worth while. His thesis
for the doctorate started an intensive study of
the conditions governing the deposition of the
nickel-copper ores of the Sudbury basin. His re-
ports on the tungsten and molybdenum ores of
Canada called attention to materials that have
become of great importance. He was one of the
pioneers in the use of the 2-circle goniometer on
this continent and wrote his Crystallography
to make this method more readily available in
the English language.

_ The mineral temiskamite, almost simultane-

ously described under the name maucherite,
which was described by him, was the cause of
much dispute as to its true composition. The
latest examination by means of X-rays agrees
within reasonable limits with the composition
as given by Walker, although the name mau-
cherite is preserved as having prioity in publi-
cation. Other minerals that were described by
him are spencerite, chapmanite, schoepite, en-
electrite, and, in collaboration with the writer,
ellsworthite.

VOL. 33, NO. 3

In view of the limited facilities for publishing
in English articles dealing with mineralogy and
petrography Dr. Walker started the series of
“Contributions to Canadian Mineralogy from
the Department of Mineralogy and Petrog-
raphy in the University of Toronto” in 1921.
This publication has appeared annually since
that time, except for the year 1936, when he
was stricken with his fatal illness. It was then
deferred until the next year when a double
number was issued.

Special recognition was given to the accom-
plishments of Dr. Walker in 1938 when the
University of Toronto granted him the degree
doctor of science (honoris causa), and in 1941
the Royal Society of Canada conferred him
further honor by the bestowal of the Flavelle
Medal for his important contributions to min-
eralogical science.

He traveled widely and was a member of
nearly every International Geological Congress
during his academic career, and on each occa-
sion he brought home material to enrich the col-
lections of the University and of the Royal On-
tario Museum of Mineralogy.

Dr. Walker will be remembered because of
the men he trained. He will also be long remem-
bered as the builder. of a great mineral museum.
To these great objectives he devoted his life,
and his accomplishments -were of no mean
order.

In 1906 Dr. Walker married Mary Augusta
Woods, daughter of the late Sir James Woods,
of Toronto. He is survived by his wife and also
by two sons, James Woods Walker and William
P. Walker, and one daughter, Euphemia B.
Walker.

A. L. PARSONS.

( CONTENTS |

re
es ye travels of Thomas Coulter, 1824-1
‘Vavueu. Se Poke eae aoe ae

American saute, JoHN 2 ‘Lucker.

‘fluke, Pane ae in Gia. ‘definitive
Kev and R. Scorr JACKSON . :

PE ee

Sime ‘saurus Linnaeus.

ee THE ACADEMY. |

OprrvARIEs: “Huwry GRANGER Knigur; Tuomas L Ona

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JOURNAL

OF THE

"WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 33

ApRIL 15, 1943

No. 4

TOXICOLOGY .—Toxicity of some dinitrophenols to the American dog tick, Der-
macentor variabilis (Say).! Oscar E. Tauser, ANNE Hacer TauBer,?
CHARLES R. Joycn,? and Wiuuis N. Bruce. (Communicated by Cart J.

DRAKE.)

Pastac (11) indicates, without reference
or date, that the first notice of the value of a
nitro dye as an insecticide came through the
observation that clothes moths did not mo-
lest wool dyed with martius yellow (dinitro-
naphthol). In the past 30 years a considera-
ble number of laboratory and field tests
with many dinitrophenols have been con-
ducted on a number of different insects (3,
7, 8, 8a, 9, 9a, 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, 15). Some of
these same dinitro compounds have been
recommended as weedkillers, fungicides,
etc. (2, 6, 11, 17). No records of the effects
of any dinitrophenols on ticks have been
found.

Ticks are particularly concerned in the
transmission of relapsing fever and typhus-
like diseases. Recently (1942) Anigstein and
Bader (1) reported evidence suggesting
Amblyomma americanum as an additional
carrier of Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
At this writing, when military training and
actual warfare bring many thousands of
men into possible contact with various po-
tentially dangerous Ixodidae, any sugges-
tions that may contribute to methods for
extermination of ticks should prove timely.

Ticks are very tenacious of life. Past at-

1 Received. February 10, 1943. Journal Paper
No. J-1091 of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment
Station, Ames, Iowa. Project No. 372.

2 Funds for employment provided by Iowa
State Department of Health of Des Moines,
Iowa, and Industrial Science Research Institute
of Iowa State College. The authors are indebted
to Dr. Carl F. Jordan, director of the Division of
Preventable Diseases, Department of Health,
State of Iowa; and Drs. C. J. Drake and C. H.
- Richardson, of Iowa State College, for suggestions
and criticisms.

tempts at control and eradication have
involved such laborious procedures as me-
chanical removal by handpicking or en-
tanglement in sheep wool; dipping domestic
animals; cutting or burning tick infested
brush; or by trapping, poisoning, or shoot-
ing of hosts other than-man and domestic
animals. Since these hosts sometimes also
include such active forms as bats and birds,
the last three of the enumerated methods of
eradication are hardly possible or efficient.
Also, elimination of rodents or other wild
hosts over a large area is likely to upset
some biologic balance and initiate new prob-
lems of another nature.

The experiments to be described were be-
gun as preliminary ground-work for con-
templated field trials to kill ticks in selected
areas by dusting vegetation in which they
are concentrated. Such dustings might reach
the ticks directly as they rested on the vege-
tation or crawled on the ground. It might
reach them when their wild hosts, such as
mammals and ground-feeding birds, moved
through the dusted herbage and brushed
and shook the toxic material on themselves
and their parasites. So far as we can deter-
mine, this proposed approach is a new at-

_tack on the tick problem.

Should this dusting of vegetation prove of
value in killing ticks, such a technique
might be useful in reducing populations of
mosquitoes, chiggers, certain flies, and other
forms that rest on herbage, or wait for vic-
tims while hanging on grass, shrubs, or
other plants. The method might conceiva-

bly be the answer to ridding jungle trails of

blood-sucking land leeches, which are a real

ey
2,
‘S,

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

menace to travelers and soldiers in Indo-
China, Malaya, and other areas of that re-
gion where rainfall is especially abundant.
‘“‘Blanket’’ dusting of refuse piles and dumps
may also serve to bring the toxic dusts to
fleas and lice carried by rats.

With these and other ideas of control in
mind, preliminary tests on fleas and other
pests have been inaugurated to ascertain
killing doses before field work is begun.
These latter results will be published in
subsequent papers.

CHEMICALS

Whenever possible, toxic compounds
were obtained as pure chemicals and diluted
as desired in the laboratory. To insure thor-
ough dispersal, weighed ingredients were
first mixed by spatula on a glass plate, then
shaken in a large jar, and last placed on a
home-made “‘roller-ball-mill” by which a
cylinder, containing the mixture and peb-
bles or glass marbles, was rolled over and
over for several hours (see Fig. 1). Among
the more promising toxic materials were
dinitro-ortho-cresol (DN-o-C), supplied by
Standard Agricultural Chemicals, Inc.;
dinitro-ortho-cyclohexyl-phenol from Dow
Chemical Co.; and ammonium-dinitro-or-
tho-cresylate and guanidine dinitro-ortho-
cresylate from American Cyanamid &
Chemical Corporation. Diluents included
320 mesh sulphur from Stauffer Chemical
Co.; ‘‘Pyrophyllite’’ from E. I. du Pont de
Nemours & Co.; and ‘“‘Pyrite’”’ from Dow.
Other compounds, such as sodium arsenite,
were pure chemicals available from labora-
tory stock.

The outstanding toxicity of 3,5-dinitro-
ortho-cresol, as demonstrated by Decker
and Drake (3), when compared with 24
other dinitro compounds, was the incentive
for using the DN-o-C as the main toxic
agent when these investigations were begun.
Preliminary tests with other compounds
were inserted in the program as the chemi-
cals became available from the manufactur-
ers.

There is some disagreement regarding the
correct naming of the dinitro-ortho-cresol.
Insect toxicologists generally refer to it as
the 3,5-compound, but Filbert (5), of du
Pont de Nemours & Co., states that 4,6-

VOL. 33, NO. 4

dinitro-o-cresol is the correct numbering as
approved both by Chemical Abstracts and
Beilstein.

EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS

Dermacentor variabilis (Say) is a widely
distributed American dog tick. It is impli-
cated in transmission and dispersal of Rocky
Mountain spotted fever. The number of
infested specimens usually runs from 1 in
200 to 1 in 600 (16). In certain areas of lowa
it has sometimes been numerous enough (4) _
to be a potentially dangerous carrier of
spotted fever to human beings.

Adult specimens of D. variabilis were col-
lected by hand from dogs, or by ‘‘flagging’”
in those localities of Iowa where ticks of
this species were known to be numerous.
Ticks thus obtained were kept over moist
sand in cotton-stoppered vials. These col-
lections included ticks of all ages within —
their adult life span. Also, individuals
ranged through all stages of nutrition, in-
cluding full engorgement, interrupted feed-
ing, and starvation. In some cases the pe-
riod of starvation may have been for more
than a year. In addition, the collections
sometimes included spent females, or gravid
females that began to oviposit while under
observation as control or experimental sub-
jects. In short, these adult ticks were of
wild stock and possessed both the good and
bad characteristics of an heterogeneous
population.

Larval ticks were hatched from eggs de-
posited in the laboratory by females taken
in the field. Larvae of a known age were
thus available for tests. Other larvae were
allowed to feed on white-footed mice, Pero-
myscus leucopus noveboracensis (Fischer),
and, after transformation to nymphs, estab-
lished a source of nymphs of known age.

Egg masses were collected in the labora-
tory, and tests were made of some of the
dinitrophenols as tick ovicides.

METHODS

Not the least of the problems this investi-
gation involved was that of devising some
technique of bringing the ticks and the com-
pounds together in a simple procedure that
could be easily and reasonably duplicated. —
After various trials, the following set-up

Apr. 15, 1943

and technique were employed for adult
ticks: A circular opening, 6 inches in diam-
eter, was cut in a piece of cardboard resting
on a sheet of paper toweling. A 2-inch disk
of cardboard was placed in the center of the
6-inch opening. Over the opening was placed
a dusting tower consisting of a tall bell jar
with an opening near the bottom, through
which a dusting nozzle could be inserted
(see Fig. 1). Known weights of dust were
pumped into the tower while the nozzle was
shifted about, inside the apparatus, to in-
sure as even a distribution of dust as possi-
ble. After the dust settled, the tower was

lifted away, and the entire cardboard pat-
tern was removed. A 2-inch circular band of
dust was thus formed on the toweling. Ticks
to be tested were placed in the central dust-
free area, and then recaptured outside the
dust ring after voluntarily walking across it
to the outer dust-free area.

With nymphal ticks, the band of dust was
reduced to 1 inch by merely using a 4-inch
disk to make the inner dust-free surface.
Younger larval ticks were so small and
“bogged down”’ so easily in the dust ring
that a further modification was necessary.
For all larvae, therefore, the following uni-
_ form procedure was used. A small nontoxic
dust ring of pyrophyllite was first set up.
The test larvae were set free inside this
ring. The dust tower was then set in place
and the dust blown in. When the tower was
removed the dusted larvae were picked up
and then confined to vials.

Adult ticks and larger nymphs were eas-
ily handled with tweezers. Larval ticks were
moved about on the pointed tip of a moist-
ened brush.

After treatment, adult and nymphal ticks
were confined separately in small vials and
examined at regular, convenient intervals.
Death of the specimen was recorded when
no movement whatsoever was elicited even
in the close approach to warmth from a
light bulb. Larval ticks were usually kept in
groups of 5 or 10 individuals to the vial.

All untreated controls were kept in the
same type of container and under the same
conditions as the treated ticks.

Actual determinations of the weight of
dust distributed in the ring under the dust

tower gave a quantity equivalent to about

TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS 99

65 to 75 pounds an acre for the adult and
nymph treatments. For larvae, the quantity
was about 20 to 25 pounds an acre.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

All results presented throughout this pa-
per represent data collected under con-
trolled laboratory conditions. Under no
circumstances are they to be construed as
results to be expected with field trials. It
was the intention to carry on field opera-

Fig. 1.—In the background is the tall bell jar
used as a dusting tower. A charge of dust is sus-
pended in its interior. In the foreground is the
mixing-mill used to roll the dust mixtures.

tions during 1942, but by the time these
preliminary laboratory tests were com-
pleted, the season suitable for outdoor tests
was too far advanced. Since these present
results may be of value to other workers
who could make field runs before we can in
the summer of 19438, our data are presented
now. In any event, field trials will be con-
ducted in Iowa in 1943 if the necessary
equipment and labor can be assembled.

Although test specimens were often kept
under observation for a week or more, and
controls were checked for several weeks at
least, only the 24- and 48-hour mortality
percentages are presented here. From the
standpoint of toxicological interest, the 24-
and 48-hour results are probably of most
significance. Beyond 48 hours other factors
than the exposure to the test dust are likely
to come into play. Also, if a tick is a vector
of a disease, the faster it is eliminated the
better, if no other complications are in-
volved.

100

Adult Dog Ticks

One of the first facts that became clearly
evident in the results was the difference in
resistance to DN-o-C between unfed and
engorged adult ticks. This characteristic is
demonstrated in the sample of data pre-
sented in Table 1.

TaBLE 1.—Morta.ity or UNFED AND ENGorRGED ADULT Doe
Ticks (Dermacentor variabilis) saFrTER CONTACT WITH
DINITRO-0-CRESOL DILUTED wiITH PYROPHYLLITE

Nutritional Number Dead at | Dead at

state Diese tested 24 hours | 48 hours

' Percent Percent Percent!
UnftedReeaee: 2 20 35 35
Unfed....... 4 20 40 45
Unfed....... 8 50 64 68
Unfed....... 12 50 2, 88
Engorged.... 8 50 36 36
Engorged.... 12 50 45 A5

1 Throughout this entire paper, percent of mortality is ex-
pressed in the nearest whole number.

Additional evidence that the nutritional
state of these ticks is an important consid-
eration was demonstrated in the summary
of mortality of specimens of this species
kept as controls under laboratory condi-
tions. This summary is given in Table 2.

TABLE 2.—MortTa.ity oF ADULT CONTROL SPECIMENS OF
Dermacentor variabilis

Nie Number . Dead at Dead at
utritional state observed 24 hours 48 hours
Percent Percent
Winfede seins: 180 11 17
Engorged........ 65 3 4.

The high mortality of the unfed indi-
viduals is rather striking, and no explana-
tion can be offered. Unfavorable humidity
is probably a factor under laboratory condi-
tions, even though some efforts were made
to keep the test ticks from dehydration. So
little is known regarding certain limiting
ecological factors in the tick’s life history
that some of our colony-maintenance pro-
cedures were probably faulty. Under the
pressure of present conditions, however, it
was decided not to take time to explore
these rearing problems, but to proceed to
the more important toxicological aspects.

In regard to the high mortality, difference
in the nutritional conditions is naturally the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 4

first suggested clue, but more complicated
relationships may be involved. No attempt
was made to check the life span of individu-
als under field conditions, but there is no
reason to assume that such a high mortality
among adults is a natural one. When one
considers, also, that most unfed ticks were
collected by the ‘‘flagging’’ method, which
entails only slight chances of injury, while
the engorged specimens were often dis-
lodged with considerable difficulty from the
skin of their hosts, the difference in mortal-
ity of the two types is even less easily ex-
plained. Nevertheless, in spite of the high
death rate of unfed controls, the data of Ta-
ble 1 show a good gradient of effect through
the use of increased strengths of the dinitro-
o-cresol.

Just what parts body surface and body
volume, considered separately or together,
might have in effecting the difference in
mortality of unfed and engorged ticks is
also unknown. Engorged ticks generally
picked up considerably more of the chemical
while walking through the band of dust.
However, this factor of actual greater con-
tact by swollen engorged ticks apparently
was not sufficient to counteract the rela-
tively larger amount of dust which the un-
fed ticks acquired. The ratio of body surface
to body volume would, of course, be higher
in the unfed ticks. The smaller, unengorged
specimens could thus acquire a higher in-
ternal concentration of the absorbed poison,
even though the actual contact was less.

TaBLE 3.—MortTauity oF UNFED AND ENGoRGED ADULT DoaG
TicKS AFTER CONTACT wiTH SULPHUR-DILUTED
DINITRO-ORTHO-CRESOL

Nutritional Number Dead at Dead at

state DN-o-C tested 24 hours | 48 hours

Percent Percent Percent
Unfed...... 4 100 57 65
Unfed...... 8 50 73 77
Wnfedeeeee: 12 50 60 68
Unfed...... 20 135 91 94
Unfed...... 25 110 87 98
Engorged... 4 sy 16 28
Engorged... 8 50 42 60
Engorged... 12 25 47 80

Engorged... 25 70 51 96

When ordinary 320-mesh dusting sulphur
was substituted for pyrophyllite as a diluent
for the dinitro-ortho-cresol, a rather well-

Apr. 15, 1943

marked general trend of increased toxicity
was often noted, especially in the lower con-
centrations of DN-o-C. These data are
given in Table 3 (compare with Table 1).

Tests with 100 per cent, 320-mesh sul-
phur in the 2-inch circular band of dust
served to emphasize again the difference in
susceptibility of unfed and engorged ticks.
This information is found in Table 4.

TasBLE 4.—Toxicity or 100 Percent SuLtpHuR (320 Mzsx)
TO THE ADULT Doe Tick

Nutritional Number Dead at Dead at
state tested 24 hours 48 hours
Percent Percent
Unies 120 19 27
Engorged........ 25 3 3

Weather conditions at, and transporta-
tion difficulties to, the usual sites of collec-
tions sometimes made it impossible to ob-
tain, at the right time, as large samples as
were desired for tests. With larger numbers
of individuals, the discrepancy in the 8 per
cent and 12 per cent trials with unfed speci-
mens of Table 3 might be eliminated. The
small sample and the heterogeneous char-
acter of the field-collected ticks may also
account for the lower mortality among the
few engorged ticks tested with 100 per cent
sulphur than among the larger sample of
control ticks in Table 2. Comparison of per
cent mortalities in Tables 1 and 3 shows,
however, that the use of sulphur as a diluent
is a valuable procedure, especially with un-
fed ticks. Similar trials with 100 per cent
pyrophyllite showed no mortality percent-
age above that found for the controls.

No attempt was made to set up experi-
ments to test for synergistic action in the
sulphur and dinitro-ortho-cresol mixtures.
Such tests are planned when next season’s
ticks become available.

Just before the 1942 tests had to be ter-
minated because of increased seasonal dif-
ficulties in obtaining ticks, several other
compounds were received from manufactur-
ers, and preliminary tests were run with the
few ticks then available. One of these chem-
icals, the ammonium dinitro-ortho-cresyl-
ate, has shown excellent promise with cer-
tain insects (8a) and other near relatives of
ticks. Results from these compounds are in

TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS 101

Table 5. Also included in this table are data
from the use of sodium arsenite at 4 per, cent
and 100 per cent levels. These arsenite tests

were included merely as reference and com-’

parison points with a more familiar toxic
dusting compound. |

TABLE 5.—PRELIMINARY RESULTS WITH MiscELLANEOUS Com-
POUNDS UsEep as Dusts on Unrep*Aputt Doe Ticks

er- : Number | Dead at | Dead at
Compound cent Diluent tested | 24 hours} 48 hours
Percent | Percent

NaAs.Os.. 4 | Pyrophyllite 25 8 20
NaAs:20;...| 100 — 25 64 92
Guanidine

dinitro-o-

cresylate.| 12 | Sulphur 30 0 23
Ammonium

dinitro-o-

cresylate.| 12 | Sulphur 30 87 94

Tables 1, 3, and 5 offer the opportunity to
compare the toxicity of several of the com-
pounds tested on unfed dog ticks. At the 12
per cent level, the ammonium dinitro-ortho-
cresylate seems the most toxic of the tested
materials. At the 4 per cent levels, the so-
dium arsenite has about half the mortality
per cent of dinitro-ortho-cresol; and, when
the latter was combined with sulphur, a 25
per cent concentration had approximately
the same toxicity for unfed specimens as 100
per cent sodium arsenite. Guanidine dini-
tro-ortho-cresylate was the least toxic of the
chemicals tried on adult dog ticks.

TABLE 6.—MorTALITY OF NymMpHAL Doc TICKS AFTER CON-
TACT WITH VARIOUS DN-ComMrPounNDs DILUTED WITH SULPHUR

Per- | Number} Dead at | Dead at

adel

102

Nymphal Dog Ticks

As stated previously, some larval ticks
were allowed to feed in the laboratory on
caged wild white-footed mice, and then used
after transformation to the nymphal stage.
All the data secured from tests on nymphs
are set up in Table 6.

Several series of untreated, control
nymphs were set up at the same time. Their
data appear in Table 7.

TABLE 7.—MoRTALITY OF UNTREATED NYMPHAL Dog Ticks

Number Dead at Dead at

Age observed 24 hours 48 hours

Percent Percent
SUG AY Sa cutee see 30 0 0
DP WEEKS hoc 5 tas eer 50 at 22
Siweekse ta tess: 30 13 28

One of the first facts apparent from Ta-
bles 6 and 7 is the decreased vigor of the
nymphs as they become older. This point is
demonstrated not only in the increased
mortality of the controls, but also in the
greater susceptibility to treatment with
poisons. Table 6 also shows a regular pro-
gressive build-up in toxicity as the percent-
age of dinitro-o-cresol is increased. All
nymphs were laboratory reared and were
thus a stock of more nearly homogene-

TaBLE 8.—MortTALITY OF 5-DAYS, 2-WEEKS AND 3-WEEKS OLD
LarvaL Doe Ticks aFTER DUSTING WITH DINITRO-ORTHO-
CRESOL DILUTED WITH PYROPHYLLITE

Dead at

Age of Cal ate oe Ge enone as
DN-o-C tested hour |hours|hours| hours| hours] hours

1 In 55 minutes.
2 In 20 minutes.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 4

ous test animals whose history was better
known than that of the field-collected adults.
Consequently, discrepancies in resultant
data are not so likely to occur because of
differences in age, nutrition, and other fac-
tors.

In addition, Table 6 makes it clear that of
the two tested cresylates the guanidine
compound is decidedly inferior to the am-
monium dinitro-o-cresylate, and the latter
is superior to the dinitro-o-cresol. While the
12 per cent dinitro-o-cresol attained 98 per
cent mortality in 48 hours, the 12 per cent
ammonium dinitro-o-cresylate brought
about 100 per cent mortality in only three
and a half hours.

Larval Dog Ticks

_ A large supply of larval ticks made it pos-
sible to make runs through a longer series of
concentrations at various ages of the test
species. Trials were run at the following
ages: 5 days, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, and 4 weeks.
The first three ages were tested only with
dinitro-o-cresol diluted with pyrophyllite.
The 4-weeks larvae were tested after it was
found that sulphur made a better diluent
than pyrophyllite, and, unfortunately, it
was not then possible to repeat the previous
tests on younger larvae, using sulphur. Also,
when the 4-weeks larvae were available,
certain other chemicals were received and
these were also tried. And, again, to our re-
gret, it was not possible, last season, to use
these latter compounds on other stages of
ticks. Their data, however, are included as a
matter of record of preliminary trials. Re-
sults on larval ticks will be found in the next
two tables; a dash (—) in the body of the
tables indicates that no check count for
mortality was made at that particular time
interval.

Contrary to the situation in nymphs,
which seem to be less hardy with increasing
age, Tables 8 and 9 show that larval ticks
become more resistant as they get older. For
example, at the 2 per cent level of dinitro-o-
eresol the youngest larvae (5 days old) were
all dead within 20 minutes; the 2-weeks
specimens were all dead at 24 hours; and the
three-weeks larvae had a mortality of 77
per cent at 48 hours. At 4 weeks of age, re-
sistance increased to the point where 8 per

Apr. 15, 1943 TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS 103

TABLE 9.—MorTALITY OF 4-WEEKS OLD LARVAL Doc Ticks AFTER DUSTING
WITH VARIOUS COMPOUNDS

ree Dead at
Compound races Diluent ber 1 3 6 12 24 48
tested} hour | hours | hours | hours | hours | hours
Percent Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per-
cent cent cent cent cent cent
Mem-o-cresol............ 4 | Sulphur 30 3 -- 6 30 50 63
me=o-cresol............- 8 | Sulphur 30 «| 10 67 90 — 100
Mem-O-cresol............ 12 | Sulphur 30 13 97 100!
Mm-o-cresol............ 8 | Pyrophyllite| 30 80 100?
mem=o-cresol............ 12 | Pyrophyllite| 30 97 100
DN-o-2nd butylphenol... 8 | Pyrophyllite| 30 97 1004 .
DN-o-cyclo-hexylphenol. . 8 | Pyrophyllite| 30 67 80 1005
Dicyclohexyl-amine salt of
DN-o-cyclo-hexylphenol 20 | Pyrophyllite| 30 3 20 — 57 100
Dinitroso-resorcinol...... 100 = 0 3 6 =e 100
Tetrachlorophenol....... 100 — 30 33 100
Pentachlorophenol.......} 100 — 30 0 77 — 100
Hexachlorophenol....... 100 — 30 6 57 — 100
Sodium arsenite......... 4 | Pyrophyllite| 30 — 10 — 17 i7/ 27
Sodium arsenite......... 100 — 0 73 87 100

1 Jn 53 hours. 2 In 23 hours.

cent dinitro-o-cresol was necessary to give
100 per cent kill in 23 hours; and with 12
per cent, 100 per cent mortality in 1 hours.

Of the four other dinitrophenols listed in
Table 9, two (the secondary butylphenol
and the cyclo-hexylphenol) give promise of
being as toxic as the dinitro-ortho-cresol, all
tested at the 8 per cent level. The other two
compounds (the amine salt and the resorci-
nol) were tested at much higher concentra-
tions (20 per cent and 100 per cent, respec-
tively) and showed no more toxicity for lar-
val ticks than the 8 per cent DN-o-C.

All three of the -chlorophenols were tried
without dilution, and, even at 100 per cent
concentration, they were no more effective
than DN-o-C in the range of 8 per cent and
12 per cent levels.

Two widely separated concentrations (4
per cent and 100 per cent) of sodium arse-
nite were tested on 4-weeks larvae, and just
as in the case of unfed adult ticks (see Table
5), were considerably less effective than
comparable percentages of dinitro-ortho-
cresol.

The pronounced fragility of the young
larval ticks is re-emphasized by the mortal-
ity data of controls, shown in Table 10. In
this case, the high death rate of young lar-
val ticks is probably a reflection of what
occurs in nature also. When one compares

3 In 12 hours.

4 In 43 hours. 5 In 83 hours.

TaBLE 10.—MortTauity oF UNTREATED CONTROL
LARVAL Ticks

Number Dead at Dead at

Age observed 24 hours 48 hours

Percent Percent
GENS oo oa0e 50 13 27
2 weeks..... 50 0 0
3 weeks..... 7 50 0 0
4 weeks..... 50 0 0

the large number of eggs, which each female
tick produces, with the smaller number of
ticks which reach maturity, it is evident
that there must be some phase of post-hatch-
ing development during which survival is
difficult. Toxic dust treatments may be able
to utilize the lethal possibilities of this criti-
cal period.

Dog Tick Eggs

Two experiments were set up to test
DN-o-C as a tick ovicide.

In the first test 15 clumps of eggs were
placed under a bell jar and dusted with 12
per cent DN-o-C at the rate of about 50
pounds/acre. There was no noticeable de-
crease in hatching, after the usual incuba-
tion period.

In the second test 10 clumps of eggs were
dusted in the same manner but with 25 per
cent DN-o-C. After a sufficient incubation

104

period elapsed, the clumps were examined.
There was an obvious reduction in the num-
ber of eggs that hatched, in comparison with
undusted control clumps kept under the
same laboratory conditions. Eggs at the
bottom of the dusted clumps, those eggs not
directly in contact with the 25 per cent
DN-o-C, were the only ones which pro-
duced young ticks. Those dusted eggs on
top and at the sides evidently were killed.

If these two rough tests are of any sig-
nificance, they indicate a considerable re-
sistance to toxic substances by tick eggs.
In both of the above tests the dusts re-
mained in contact with the eggs throughout
the entire incubation time. Dusts applied
under field conditions would probably not
remain so closely applied during approxi-
mately three weeks of weathering. Attempts
at eradication or decrease of ticks by dust-
ing the eggs would probably not be prac-
ticable. It appears that the egg stage is not
the tick’s most vulnerable period.

CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of laboratory tests alone, the
following statements are presented.

1. Unfed and engorged adult specimens
of the American dog tick, Dermacentor
variabilis, possess a decided difference in
susceptibility to contact with dinitro-ortho-
cresol and other dinitrophenols. For exam-
ple, 12 per cent DN-o-C, with pyrophyllite
as a diluent, applied at the rate of 65 to 75
pounds to the acre, has a 48-hour mortality
of 88 per cent with unfed adults; and 45 per
cent with engorged adults.

2. The use of 320-mesh dusting sulphur
as a diluent, in combination with DN-o-C,
makes a more toxic mixture against ticks
than that obtained with pyrophyllite as the
diluent. With 8 per cent DN-o-C, at 48
hours, the per cent of mortality for unfed
adults is 68 per cent with pyrophyllite; 77
per cent with sulphur. For engorged adults,
with 8 per cent DN-o-C, the per cent dead
is 36 with pyrophyllite and 60 with sulphur.

3. Sulphur alone has some toxicity for
unfed adult dog ticks. Applied at the rate of
65 to 75 pounds an acre, 100 per cent sul-
phur killed 19 per cent unfed ticks in 24
hours. It had no effect on the particular

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 30, NO. 4

sample of 25 engorged specimens tested in
the same manner.

4. Even in combination with sulphur,
and at 65 to 75 pounds an acre, DN-o-C
mixtures must contain at least 25 per cent
of the DN compound to produce a kill over
95 per cent within 48 hours. The adult dog
tick is tenacious of life.

5. Ammonium dinitro-o-cresylate gives
promise of higher toxicity than DN-o-C. In
preliminary tests, a 12 per cent concentra-
tion with sulphur is nearly equal in toxicity
to 25 per cent DN-o-C when applied in
identical dosages.

6. Undiluted sodium arsenite is slightly
less toxic to -unfed adult dog ticks than
DN-o-C diluted at 25 per cent with sulphur,
when applied in identical dosages, with
identical technique.

7. Guanidine dinitro-ortho-cresylate does
not show much promise as a tickicide. |

8. Nymphal dog ticks decrease in vigor as
they age during the nymphal stage. This is
shown both by increased mortalities among
untreated controls, and by greater suscepti-
bility to dusting with DN compounds.

9. At. 65 to 75 pounds an acre, a sulphur
and DN-o-C mixture must contain at least
16 per cent of the cresol to kill more than 95
per cent of the younger (5 days old) nymphs
within 48 hours. A 12 per cent DN-o-C will
kill more than 95 per cent of 2 to 3 weeks
old nymphs within 24 hours; 16 per cent
kills 100 per cent in less than 24 hours.

10. With nymphal ticks ammonium DN-
o-cresylate again shows superior toxicity;
12 per cent in sulphur kills 100 per cent of 3-
weeks nymphs in 33 hours.

11. Larval dog ticks become more hardy
with age. For example, when treated with 2
per cent DN-o-C, 5 days old larvae were all
dead in 20 minutes; the 2-weeks specimens
were all dead at 24 hours; and 3-weeks lar-
vae had a mortality of 77 per cent at 48
hours. At 4 weeks of age the DN-o-C con-
centration had to go to 8 per cent to kill 100
per cent in 24 hours.

12. When tested with 4-weeks old larval
ticks, dinitro-o-secondary butylphenol and
DN-o-cyclohexylphenol appear nearly as
toxic as DN-o-C. The dicyclohexylamine

Apr. 15, 1943

salt of DN-o-cyclohexylphenol is decidedly
less toxic than DN-o-C.

13. Dinitrosoresorcinol, and the tetra-,
penta-, and hexa-chlorophenols seem to
have little value as tick larvicides.

14. Dog-tick eggs are quite resistant to
poisoning by DN-o-C. When dusted with 12
per cent DN-o-C, no noticeable reduction in
hatching occurred. Dusting with 25 per cent
DN-o-C killed those eggs with which it
came into direct contact, and on which it
stayed during the entire incubation period.

15. With the above results in mind it
seems an inevitable conclusion that field
control of the American dog tick probably
will be a difficult, but not impossible, prob-
lem if attacked with DN-o-C or N Hy-DN-o-
cresylate. There seems to be no particularly
vulnerable spot during its life history. It is
most easily killed during early larval life,
but that susceptibility does not help much,
for practical purposes, since hatching occurs
over a long period during warm weather.
Only repeated dusting over several months
could take advantage of this weakness.

LITERATURE CITED

1. ANIGSTEIN, Lupwik, and BapErR, MapgErRo
N. New epidemiological aspect of spotted
fever in the Gulf coast of Texas. Science
96: 357-358. 1942.

2. COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL
RESEARCH, COMMONWEALTH OF AUS-
TRALIA. Fifteenth Annual Report. Ex-
cerpts in Science 97: 45-47. 1943.

3. Decxer, G.C., and Draxg, C.J. Prelim-
mary studies on the use of dinitro-o-cresol
dusts in grasshopper control. Iowa State
Coll. Journ. Sci. 14: 345-351. 1940.

4, Eppy, Gaines W., and Joyce, CHARLES
R. Ticks collected on the Tama (Iowa)
Indian Reservation with notes on other
species. lowa State Coll. Journ. Sci. 41:

539-543. 1942. -
5. FinBerT, W. F. Personal communication
to C. J. Drake. 1941.

6. Firzcrraup, J. 8., Ratcrirre, F. N., and
Gay, F. J. The use of mineral oils and tar
oils for wheat weevil control. Journ. Coun-
et and Ind. Research 15: 59-71.

TAUBER ET AL.: TOXICITY OF SOME DINITROPHENOLS

105

7. GimincHaM, C. T., Masszxz, A. M., and
TATTERSFIELD, F. Toxicity of 3:5-din-
tro-o-cresol and other compounds to insect
eggs, under laboratory and field conditions.
Ann. Applied Biol. 13: 446-465. 1926.

8. GimincHaM, C. T., and TATTERSFIELD, F.
Laboratory and field experiments on the use
of 3:5-dinitro-o-cresol and its sodium salt
for winter spraying. Journ. Agri. Sci. 17:
162-180. 1927.

Sa. HARGREAVES, EK. The action of some or-
ganic compounds when used as stomach
poisons for caterpillars. Bull. Ent. Res.
15; 51-56. 1924.

9. Kacy, J. FRANKLIN, and RICHARDSON,
CHarRLes H. Ovicidal and_ scalicidal
properties of solutions of dinitro-o-cyclo-
hexylphenol in petroleum oil. Journ. Kcon.
Ent. 29: 52-61. 1936.

9a. Lerroy, H. M., and Fintow, R. 8S. In-
quiry into the insecticidal action of some
mineral and other compounds on cater pil-
lars. Mem. Agr. Dept. India 4. 1913.
(Not available; referred to by Har-
greaves.)

10. Marcus, B. A. ‘‘Detal’’ Bestaubung gegen
den Kiefernspanner (Bupalus piniarius
L.). Zeitschr. Angew. Ent. 24: 71-86.
1937.

11. Pasrac, I. Les colorants nitrés et leurs ap-
plications particuliéres. Journ. Lutte
Chim. contre Ennemis Cultures 38 (4):
LO ppy elo:

12. SCHWERDTFEGER, F. Brologische Grund-
lagen der Engerlings-bekampfung.
Zeitschr. Forst. und Jagdwesen. 71: 169—
186. 1939.

13. TATTERSFIELD, F., GimincHam, C. T. and
Morris, H. M. Studies on contact in-
secticides. III. Insecticidal action of
chloro-, nitro-, and hydrozyl-derivatives of
benzene and naphthalene. Ann. Appl.
Biol. 12: 218-262. 1925.

14. TaTTeRsFIELD, F. Relationship between
the chemical constitution of organic com-
pounds and their toxicity to insects. Journ.
Agr. Sci. 17: 181-208. 1927.

15. TuHinm, H. Zur Lage und Gestalfung der
Markdferbekampfung. Abstract in Rev.
App. Ent. (A) 27: 299. 1938.

16. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bu-
REAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND PLANT QUAR-

ANTINE. Insects in relation to national
defense. Circular 12—Ticks. 25 pp.
1942.

17. Westcats, W. A., and Raynor, R.N. A
new selective spray for the control of certain
weeds. California Agr. Exp. Stat. Bull.
634: 36 pp. 1940.

106

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 4

ENTOMOLOGY .—Synoptic revision of the testaceipennis group of the beetle genus

Phyllophaga.!

The specific name testacezpennis (Blanch-
ard) has long been applied to various species
of Phyllophaga resembling the true testacei-
pennis, all moderate-sized, semipruinose
species with a foveate fifth sternite and
Phytalus-like cleft claws (which are mi-
nutely denticulate beneath) having been
combined under this name. The present pa-
per attempts to clarify the taxonomy of this
complex. Drawings of the genitalia of the
species involved are here presented for the
first time. }

Six names have been proposed for species
known to me that belong in the group, and
of these two are here considered as syno-
nyms. Two species are described as new, so
that the group, as treated in this paper,
comprises six valid species. The following
key is based on the male sex; as the females
(allexcept that of raydoma, n.sp., are known)
are difficult to separate, they will have to be
determined primarily by association with
the males.

1. First two segments of hind tarsus of nearly
equal length; elytral hair dense and very ob-
vious, though short, and of nearly uniform
length; fifth sternite not foveate; prothorax
entirely and evenly punctate, with short,
erect, obvious hair of uniform length (Fig.
Garg) -Guatemalane: ones es a eee
SE AW a ete ie Ot at aon RF pubicollis (Blanchard)

First segment of hind tarsus very noticeably
shorter than the second; elytral hairs varia-
ble but elytra never densely covered with
short hairs; fifth sternite distinctly foveate
or at least noticeably impressed apically;
prothorax variably punctate but unevenly
so, and middisk often irregularly impunc-
tate, the hairs of variable length or lack-
Thilo a nae eM ne et a Manat Mitel Cin in erika Mee ore 2

2. Fifth sternite densely punctate but distinctly
not foveate apically, at most slightly trans-
versely impressed; apex of fifth sternite
straight and not at all emarginate......... 3

Fifth sternite densely punctate and very no-
ticeably foveate, midapex distinctly and usu-
ally broadly and arcuately emarginate....4

3. Prothorax strongly shining, rufous, and gla-
brous or apparently so, the front angles
sharp and subrectangular; antennal club
slightly longer than funicle (Fig. 5a, 6).
British Honduras......... bowditchi Saylor

1 Received January 27, 1943.

LAWRENCE W. SAYLOR.

Prothorax subpruinose, rufocastaneous, and
with short hairs and some longer hairs inter-
mixed, front angles obtuse and not particu-
larly noticeable; antennal club distinctly
longer than funicle and subequal to entire
stem (Mig. la, b). Guatemala. 9.) eee
Nad. Foca, cd Race ALE AUR ea en raydoma, nN. sp.

4. Prothorax with hairs minute and hardly no-
ticeable, without longer hairs; color dorsally
distinctly pruinose (Fig. 3a, 6, f). Panama,
Venezuelan. Xo, 203" oe ee odomi, Nn. sp.

Prothorax always with noticeable hairs, these
usually short, with intermixed longer hairs;
color variable, either strongly shining or
PIUIMOSE... oe ss Lode ore 5)

5. Color always very distinctly and very strongly
shining, thorax deep rufous; elytra coarsely
and rugosely punctate and without obvious
striae (Fig. 4a). Costa Rica <. - 23 eee
Me en eee RONS Sos hae 5 sanjosicola Saylor

Color highly variable but always evidently
pruinose, thorax at most castaneorufous;
elytra less rugosely punctured and usually
with distinct striae (Fig. 2a—e). Mexico to
Panama. ee ce ae testacerpenms (Blanchard)

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) testaceipennis
(Blanchard)
Fig. 2, a-e

Ancylonycha testaceipennis Blanchard, Cat.
Col. 1: 134. 1850.

Lachnosterna testaceipennis (Blanchard) Bates,
Biol. Cent.-Amer. 2(2): 195. 1888.

Male: Form oblong-oval, wider behind. Color
testaceous to rufotestaceous, varying to rufo-
castaneous or castaneopiceous, the thorax usu-
ally more rufous; above slightly to markedly
pruinose, dorsal hair variable. Head with front
convex, coarsely, rugosely and closely punctate
with short erect hairs. Clypeus transverse,
disk sparsely to moderately punctured, at times
with smooth areas near the hardly impressed
and faintly biarcuate suture; apex somewhat
reflexed and hardly or not emarginate, the
angles and sides not reflexed and the lateral
angles so broadly rounded as to make the cly-
peal shape semiarcuate. Antenna variable, 9- or
10-segmented, usually the latter; the club small
and thick and usually a little longer than, or
subequal to, the funicle. Thorax with sides
straight before the submedian, obtuse lateral —
dilation, and faintly emarginate behind it, the
angles distinct but very obtuse; disk smooth,
the punctures irregularly placed and separated

Apr. 15, 1943

by 1 to 3 times their diameters, sparser at cen-
ter disk, which often possesses an irregular im-
punctate area; all punctures with short erect
hairs and a moderate number of intermixed
much longer hairs, the discal surface at least
partly pruinose. Scutellum impunctate. Elytral
punctures more regularly placed and separated
by 14 to 3 times their diameters, with short
suberect hairs and some longer ones interca-
lated, especially near suture and base; striae
variable, usually irregular but obvious, the
sutural striae strong. Pygidium convex, polished
or semipruinose, the surface frequently slightly
wrinkled, and the punctures sparse and sepa-
rated by two to four times their diameters, with
short suberect hairs; apex well rounded and cili-
ate. Abdomen polished and subflattened at
middle, and the sutures obliterated between
sternites 2 to 5, the disk very sparsely, finely,
and setigerously punctate, the hairs short and
suberect; fifth sternite with a large median
patch of about three dozen granules, the apical
half of segment foveate and the center apex
appearing widely and somewhat deeply emargi-
nate; sixth sternite nearly as long as fifth, flat-
tened, sparsely set with fine granules and long
erect hairs, and the middle disk with a dis-
tinctly impressed longitudinal sulcus. Claws
very short and rounded, appearing narrowly
cleft very much as in Phytalus; the middle
tooth as long as the apical but twice as wide
through its middle part, its apex reflexed
basally; basal dilation obtuse and the surface
between it and basal tooth minutely denticu-
late. Segments 1—4 of anterior tarsus each with
a small though distinct spine on the inner apical
angle. Hind spurs free, spinose, the longest a
little longer than first tarsal segment; first tar-
sal segment only three-fifths the length of the
second.

Female: Similar to male except: Antennal
club shorter than funicle; pygidium distinctly
narrowed and pointed at center apex, and re-
flexed slightly into a sharp tumosity, the mar-
gin hardly thickened, but the surface below the
“point”’ and on the underside of the pygidium
very wide and smooth, the disk with very short
erect hairs; fifth sternite plane, hardly different
from the fourth; sixth sternite convex and ir-
regularly punctate, the center discal area im-
punctate; claws slightly longer and very dis-
tinctly more widely cleft (see Fig. 2e). Length
13-16 mm.

SAYLOR: THE TESTACEIPENNIS GROUP OF PHYLLOPHAGA

107

Described from Mexico, this is an extremely
common and widespread species, ranging from
Mexico to Panama. Since the original descrip-
tion of half a dozen lines is so inadequate the
species is here described in some detail. Most
closely related to sanjosicola Saylor and odomi
Saylor, this species is readily separated by the
key characters and the form of the male geni-
talia.

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) bowditchi
aylor
Fig. 5, a—b
Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) bowditchi Saylor,
Proce. Biol. Soc. Washington 51: 189-190.
1938.

This species is known to me only through the
type series from ‘‘M-tee District of British
Honduras, March.’ It most closely resembles
raydoma Saylor of this species-complex, but the
two species are noticeably different in all views
of the male genitalia, as well as in the external
characters noted in the key.

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) raydoma, n. sp.
Kiet 6. 1a..0

Male: Similar to testaceipennis (Blanchard)
in most respects, differing only as follows: An-
tenna 10-segmented, the club long and sub-
equal to the entire stem in length; scutellum
very sparsely punctate; fifth abdominal ster-
nite nearly flat, only faintly impressed apically
and not at all foveate; first hind tarsal segment
only one-half the length of the second; and the
genitalia are different (see Fig. 1, a—c). Length
14 mm. Width 7.5 mm.

The unique male holotype in the Saylor col-
lection is from ‘‘Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala.”
The species differs mainly from testacerpennts in
characters of the antennal club, the fifth ab-
dominal sternite, and the male genitalia.

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) odomi, n. sp.
Eigse dO,

Male: Color rufotestaceous to rufocastane-
ous or rufopiceous, the thorax and head usually
rufous or darker than the elytra; surface dis-
tinctly pruinose; dorsal surface variably hairy.
Very similar in nearly all respects to testacet-
pennis except as follows: Clypeus at times more
densely punctate and semitrapezoidal; thoracic
hairs always minute and hardly or barely visi-
ble, without any longer intercalated hairs; ely-
tral hairs also minute, with several short hairs

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 4

Fig. 1.—Phyllophaga raydoma, n. sp. Fig. 2.—Phyllophaga testaceipennis (Blanchard). Fig. 3.—
Phyllophaga odom, n. sp. Fig. 4.—Phyllophaga sanjosi7ola Saylor. Fig. 5.—Phyllophaga bowditchi
Saylor. Fig. 6.—Phyllophaga pubicollis (Blanchard).

a, Lateral view of male genitalia; b, dorsal view of male genitalia; c, ventral view of male genitalia;
d, front male claw; e, front female claw; f, ventral view of hind leg of male; g, en-face view of male

genitalia.

Apr. 15, 1943"

adjoining the scutellum; genitalic form related
to that of testaceipennis, but different, especi-
ally in lateral view (see Fig. 3, a).

Female: Similar to female of testacerpennis
except that the thoracic hairs are all minute
and hardly visible (in one female example of
odomi about half a dozen long hairs are visible
just before the midapex but the entire disk is
minutely haired). Length 15-17 mm. Width
7-9 mm.

The male holotype is from ‘‘Madden Dam,
Canal Zone, Panama, collected at light V-18-36
by M. M. Saylor’’; the female allotype and sev-
eral male and female paratypes are from ‘‘Los
Canales, Kaiguata, Venezuela, VII-24-39, Vi-
vas-Berthier Collector.’”? An additional para-
type is from ‘“‘Caracas, Venezuela, D. F., VI-
5-32.” All are in the Saylor collection. I take
pleasure in naming this handsome species for
my close friend and collecting companion C.
Ray Odom, of Virginia. P. odomi differs mainly
from testacetpennis in the thoracic vestiture,
larger size, and the slightly different male
genitalia (which in lateral view appear to over-
hang slightly the upper tooth, but not so much
as in sanjosicola Saylor).

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) sanjosicola Saylor
Fig. 4, a
Phyllophaga sanjosicola Saylor, Rev. Ent. 5(4):
500. 1935.
_ Phytalus valeriana Saylor, Pomona Coll. Journ.
Ent. Zool., Dec. 1934.

Known as yet only from the type series, all
the specimens of which were collected “at light,
San José, Costa Rica, May, 1,000-1,200 m.”
This series is divided between the Saylor col-
lection and the Nevermann collection, which
is now in the United States National Museum.
The slightly larger size, distinctive shining, and
more coarsely punctate surface will readily
separate the species from testaceipennis, as will
also the male genitalia (uppermost portion of
testacervpennis genitalia in lateral view evenly
rounded above the upper tooth, whereas in
sanjosicola the uppermost portion very mark-
edly overhanging the upper tooth).

Phyllophaga (Phyllophaga) pubicollis
(Blanchard)
Fig. 6, a-g
Phytalus pubicollis Blanchard, Cat. Col. 1: peat
1850.

SAYLOR: THE TESTACEIPENNIS GROUP OF PHYLLOPHAGA

109

Phytalus (?) pubtcollis Blanchard, Bates, Biol.
Cent.-Amer. 2(2): 126, 400. 1888.

Lachnosterna heynet Moser, Stett. Ent. Zeit.,
1918: 164. (New synonymy.)

Male: Elongate, subparallel; color rufocas-
taneous and shining, the thorax and head shin-
ing rufous, above densely haired. Clypeus mod-
erately long, the disk flat, sparsely and coarsely
punctate, smooth near middle: apex subtrun-
cate, unemarginate, and slightly reflexed, the
angles very broadly rounded. Head with the
front slightly convex, densely, coarsely and en-
tirely punctate, with erect hairs of moderate
length. Antenna 10-segmented, unicolorous
castaneous, the club long and subequal to the
entire stem. Thorax with the sides evenly arcu-
ate and hardly dilated at middle, the margin
entire and ciliate; angles very obtuse and not
well marked; disk evenly and entirely punc-
tured, the punctures separated by one and one-
half to twice their diameters, with suberect
short hairs, and many intermixed erect hairs of
moderate length. Scutellum sparsely and setig-
erously punctured. Elytra punctate as thorax,
with dense, short, semierect hairs and a few
longer hairs near base; striae faintly indicated.
Pygidium polished, convex, the disk coarsely
and moderately densely punctate, with short
suberect hairs and sparse, erect longer hairs,
the apex subrounded, narrowed and slightly re-
flexed. Abdomen polished, faintly concave at
middle, very sparsely and finely punctate and
with short hairs (densely and more closely
punctate at sides), and the sutures of sternites
2-5 effaced at middle; fifth sternite flattened,
densely and coarsely punctate at middle, with a
few small procumbent hairs; sixth nearly as
long as preceding and transversely impressed,
the disk finely and setigerously punctate and
without any longitudinal sulcus, the hairs on
disk long but nearly procumbent. Claws very
short and cleft as in testaceivpennis but the upper
(i.e., closest to base) tooth 23 times as wide at
base as the apical tooth. Hind spurs free and
very graceful; the first two hind tarsal segments
subequal and the second only faintly the long-
est. Front tarsi slightly spinose on inner apical
angles.

Female: Differs from male as follows: Anten-
nal club subequal to funicle; pygidium small,
plane, sparsely and not coarsely punctate, with
short suberect hairs, the apex subrounded and
narrowed and the apical fourth of disc some-

110

what smooth; abdomen semiconvex, the fifth
sternites plane, and coarsely, densely punctate,
the sixth convex and similarly punctate; claws
distinctly more widely cleft; first segment of
hind tarsus distinctly shorter than the second.
Length 12.5 to 13 mm. Width 6—7 mm.

I have specimens from ‘‘Coban, Vera Paz,
Guatemala, Conradt collector’ (Biologia ma-
terial), and also from ‘“‘Alta Vera Paz, Guate-
mala.’’ The species was very inadequately de-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

“VOL. 33, NO. 4

scribed from Mexico by Blanchard, who placed
it in Phytalus because of the cleft claws; how-
ever, the female claws are so widely cleft that
the species cannot be included there. As indi-
cated in the key the species is abundantly dif-
ferent from the others in the group but appears
to belong with them in most general characters.
Bates first placed the species in Phytalus and
later removed it to Lachnosterna in the Biologia
Supplement.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY

45TH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 45th annual meeting of the AcaDEMY
was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos
Club on January 21, 1943. President Curtis
called the meeting to order at 8:15 p.m., with
about 80 persons present. The minutes of the
44th annual meeting were approved as pub-
lished on pages 85 to 91 of the JouRNAL of
‘March 15, 1942. The reports of the several offi-
cers and of the Committees of Auditors and
Tellers were read and accepted, as follows:

‘Report of the Secretary

During the past year, 23 new members (14
resident and 9 nonresident) were taken into the
AcaDEMY. Three of the new nonresident mem-
berships were in the honorary class. The new
members were distributed among the various
sciences as follows: 3 each in bacteriology and
physics, 2 each in astronomy, chemistry, and
geology, and 1 each in agronomy, anthropol-
ogy, archeology, biochemistry, botany, geo-
chemistry, geography, hydraulics, physiology,
plant pathology, and plant physiology.

Because of retirement from active practice of
their profession, 10 members (7 resident and 3
nonresident) were placed on the retired list.
Resignations were accepted from 11 members
in good standing (9 resident and 2 nonresident).

The deaths of 17 members (8 resident and 9
nonresident) were reported, as follows:

THomas Hersert Norton, White Plains,
N. Y., December 2, 1941.

Cuinton Hart Merriam, Berkeley, Calif.,
March 20, 1942.

WatTeER Forp Reyno.tps, Baltimore, Md.,
May 1, 1942.

EDWARD CENTER GROESBECK, Washington,
D. C., May 9, 1942.

Str JosepH Larmor, Cambridge, England,
May 19, 1942.

Marcus Warp Lyon, Jr., South Bend, Ind.,
May 19, 1942.

Henry GRANGER Knicut, Washington, D. C.,
June 13, 1942.

ANDREW STEWART, Washington, D. C., June
28, 1942.

Harry JoHn McNicuHouas, Washington, D. C.
July 23, 1942.

THomMas LEonaRD WALKER, Toronto, Canada,
August 6, 1942.

Henry CorsBin Fuuier, Washington, D. C.,
August 26, 1942.

ALFRED Newtson Finn, Lincoln, Nebr., Sep-
tember 21, 1942.
Witit1AmM Epwarp Parker, Fort Lauderdale,
Fla., September 30, 1942.
Rospert Wiicox SAYLES,
Mass., October 238, 1942.
CHARLES ScCHUCHERT, New Haven, Conn., No-
vember 20, 1942.

Herman StTasier, Washington, D. C., No-
vember 24, 1942.

JAMES EXpMUND Ivus, Washington, D. C., Jan-
uary 1, 1943.

Chestnut Hill,

On January 20, 1943, the status of the mem-
bership was as follows:

Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total
Resident 423 Bi 3 0 463
Nonresident 132 20 15 4 169
Total 555 57 18 2 632

The net changes in membership during the
past year are as follows:

Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total
Resident —10 4 0 0 —6
Nonresident 5 2 24 0 9
Total —5 6 2 0 3

From February 6, 1942, to January 11, 19438,
the Board of Managers held eight meetings,
with an average attendance of 19 persons. Two
special committees held over from 1941 com-
pleted their work. Of the 10 special committees
appointed by the president during the past
year, 8 have completed their work.

During the past year, the Academy held six
meetings, beginning with the 310th and ending
with the 315th as follows:

On February 19, 1942, jointly with the An-
thropoldgical Society of Washington, with an
address entitled The Aztecs of Mexico by
GrorceE C. VAILLANT, director of the Museum
of the University of Pennsylvania.

Apr. 15, 1943

On March 19, 1942, for the presentation of
the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve-
ment for 1941 to G. ArTHUR CoopER, of the
U. 8. National Museum, in the biological sci-
ences; to THEODORE R. GILLILAND, of the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, in the engineering
sciences; and to Stpriinc B. Henpricks, of
the U. 8. Bureau of Plant Industry, in the
physical sciences.

On April 16, 1942, jointly with the Philo-
sophical Society of Washington, with an ad-
dress entitled Cosmic emotion, by Pau R.
HevY1, chief of the Section on Sound at the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards.

On October 15, 1942, jointly with the Wash-
ington Branch of the Society of American Bac-
teriologists, with an address entitled Structural
differentiation within the bacterial cell as shown
by the electron microscope, by Stuart Mupp,
professor of bacteriology in the School of Medi-
cine at the University of Pennsylvania.

On November 19, 1942, jointly with the
Philosophical Society of Washington, with an
address entitled Color blindness and its relation
to the detection of camouflage, by DEANE B.
Jupp, physicist in the Section on Photometry
and Colorimetry at the National Bureau of
Standards.

On December 17, 1942, jointly with the An-
thropological Society of Washington, with an
address entitled Anthropological explorations in
Netherlands New Guinea, by MatruEw W.
STIRLING, chief of the Bureau of American Eth-
nology, Smithsonian Institution.

Accounts of the first four of these meetings
have already been published in the JouRNAL
- under the Proceedings of the Academy, and
those of the last two will appear shortly. All
the meetings were held in the Assembly Hall of
the Cosmos Club.

Respectfully submitted by FRmepERIck D.
Rossin1, Secretary.

Report of the Treasurer

CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS

RECEIPTS:

Hrom-dues 1940... .. 00... ue $ 20.00
Hromedues 1941. 6k ike es 100.00
Brom dues) 19420... fee. see 2,570.00
romndues 19437 . oo sre ia 65.00
From subscriptions 1941........ 47.20
From subscriptions 1942........ 479.70
From subscriptions 1943........ 330.00
from sales of JOURNAL.......... 69 .60
From sales of directory......... 6.85
From payments for reprints. .... 488 .15
From interest on deposits....... .90
From interest on investments.... 982 .06

@otal Teceipts. 0). 2 ete $5,159.46
Cash balance Jan. 1, 1942....... 4,802.97

To be accounted for........ $9 , 962.43

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY

DISBURSEMENTS:

For Secretary’s Office...........
For Treasurer’s Office...........
For JOURNAL printing 1941......
For JOURNAL printing 1942......
For JOURNAL reprints 1942......
For JouRNAL illustrations 1941...
For JouRNAL illustrations 1942...
For JourNAL Office 1941........
For JoURNAL Office 1942........
For Custodian & Subs. Megr......
For Meetings Committee........
ROTMGInCCLONY. «352 cosa % ees
For refund on JOURNAL sales.....

Total disbursements........

Bank debit memos:

Subscriptions, 1942. 2.5. 653s:
Deposited in Savings Account....

Cash balance Dec. 31, 1942......

Invested in U.S. Series G Bonds. .

$9 , 962.43

13.95

$4 , 456.37
1,506.06

$5 , 962.43

4,000 .00

RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE

Balance as per cash book 12-31-42...
Bank Balance American Sec. &
Trust Co., per statement

Ne hes wk ale VES 1,558.06
Receipts not deposited... . 31.60
$1,589.66
Checks outstanding, not cashed:
INO RO 8 $21.50
Soil ears 2.30
SS reir ss 25.00
S84e 8 ocus 7.50
SS eens 4.80
SRG oe ves: 22.50 83 .60

$1,506 .06

$1,506.06

112

INVESTMENTS
409 Shares stock of Washington Sanitary Improvement Co., par value $10 per share,
COSE aie e ees es e e EGr 0 GPUN na c $ 4,090.00
20 Shares stock* Potomac) Blecbower Com G97. bret -1costna 2) ste ee 2,247.50
4 Certificates Corporate Stock of City of New York, 1 for $500, 3 for $100, cost....... 800 .00
1 Bond of Chicago Railways Co., #1027; interest at 5%, due 1927, par value $1,000 less
S200, COST. ee ois bs We ecore erat culeaIe GUE sig MRI aee Gas Sco Sire eT eae a (sesh
1 Real-estate note of T. Q. Donaldson (#6 of 12) dated June 26, 1937 (extended to
1943)" amterest:.5 94, COSU sai fiacese Sine saw eek Ot ee EOE Ee ence ee Seer ee 1,000.00
2 Real-estate notes of Yetta Korman et al., dated Oct. 5, 1938, for 3 years (#7 of 37 for
$500 ands#8 ot 37 for. $500)! scOSteic cone conte 2 eae TOU a tree 1,000, 00
2 Certificates (1 for $4,000 and 1 for $1,000) First Federal Savings & Loan Assn. Nos.
OVA & LOG Bs tele Ee OG a ph aA ee ele he a 5,000.00
2 Certificates (1 for $4,500 and 1 for $500) Northwestern Federal Savings and Loan
Assn. Nos, [38Q’and laa i. eee SR eR rece A 5,000.00
4 U. 8S. Government Series G Bonds at $1,000 each, Nos. M332990G, M332991G,
M332992G, MS8829938Ge vis hoes ci Oe SE ets Nm 1c) Nee Or Soar 4,000.00
Deposited in Savings Account, American Sec. & Trust Co..............0 eee eeeee 46.65
$23 , 898 .02
Cash Book: balance Dec, 395. W942 ee ag Se irs ele eee ed ad 1,506.06
Total ‘Assets. ie. ee eg eg eae eee $25 , 404.08
Total Assets Dec. 31, 1942.......... $25 , 404 .08
Total Assets Dec. 31, 1941.......... 24,700.09
TinGReais Cae ecits neta $ © ©703.99

After payment of outstanding bills, the net increase in assets for 1942 will be about $300.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 4

ALLOTMENTS

Allotted Expended
Secretanyrs Omen tii. ances ose neem 450 .00 381 .85*
Treasurers! Ofiices aes we ce ae. Fee 200.00 164.13
JO URINGATG si, Ua es Ste Sanh MAT tie Ne a A 2800 .00 +593 .08 =3393 .08 3010.64**
Meetings Committee.............. se 8 ae 325.00 324 .98T
Custodians "Subs. Mere meee eee 75.00 21.3
Membership Committee.................. 10.00 SSS
Bxecutive Committee, 6.24 oe ee 10.00 See
JouR NAT Clerical eAsstiy ee we es eee 240 .00
JOWRNAT EW isch Expense wm ane] anenes wee 60.00} =300 .00 264 .00°°
Madendtime tom Directory. eas en 60.00 30.84

*Does not include unpaid bill of approximately $10.00.

**Does not include, Oct., Nov. or Dec. Reprints nor Nov. or Dec. Printing & Illustrations.
tIncludes all charges for 1942, $38.00 of which has been paid since Dec. 31, 1942.
°Includes all charges for 1942 $12.00 of which has been paid since Dec. 31, 1942.
°*Includes all charges for 1942 $21.91 of which has been paid since Dec. 31, 1942.

Respectfully submitted by Howarp S. Rappieye, Treasurer.

Report of the Committee of Auditors

_ The accounts of the Treasurer of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences for the year 1942
were examined by your committee on January
18, 1943. All receipts and imbursements in-
cluded in his report were checked against all
vouchers and balance sheets from the bank.
Vouchers are properly approved and the report

is correct. Securities listed in the Treasurer’s
reports were inspected on January 18, 1943,
and the statement of assets is correct. The or-
derly manner in which the records were kept is
to be highly commended and made the com-
mittee task an easy one.

Respectfully submitted by Joun W. Ros-
ERTS (Chairman), EUGENE Posnsak, and C. H.
SWIck.

Apr. 15, 1943

Report of the Archivist

During the past year little progress has been
made in sorting the material turned over to the
Archivist. A 5-foot steel safe, a 3-drawer steel
file with lock, and a steel storage cabinet have
been borrowed for storing the archives. The
archivist was authorized to open a mysterious
package that had remained sealed since the
founding of the Academy. This package con-
tained the original ballots for charter members
and is open for inspection by any who are in-
terested. A noteworthy archive, found by Dr.
L. O. Howard when he moved his household ef-
fects to New York, was given to the Archives.
This was a large book containing reproductions
of the signatures and documents incident to the
formation of the Royal Society of London. Any
material of value to the Academy inits Archives
will be greatly welcomed by the Archivist from
the members of the Academy.

Respectfully submitted by Natuan R.
Situ, Archivist.

Report of the Board of Editors

Volume 32 of the JourNAL for the calendar
year 1942 consisted of 12 issues of 376 pages
distributed as follows:

Number Num-

Classification of ber of
: Articles Pages
Anthropology 2 18.3
Astronomy 1 28.0
Astrophysics 1 3.0
Bacteriology 1 4.0
Biophysics 2 fOr
Botany 13 66.5
Chemistry 5 PAL 4
Crystallography 1 11.0
Entomology 4 19.9
Ethnology 1 17.0
General Interest 2 14.9
Geodesy 1 5.3
Geology 1 2.3
Geophysics it 15.0
Ichthyology 4 23.3
Index : 1 4.0
Medical Entomolog if 3.0
Obituaries 7 5.0
Paleobotany 1 Sal,
Paleontology 2 10.4 ‘
Proceedings—Academy Les
Proceedings—Anthrop. a
Proceedings—Chem. .- Dye lk
Proceedings—Geol. 6.0
Proceedings—Phil. Tes}
Physics 2 20.4
Zoology 1M 35.6
Total 376.0
These may be summarized as follows:
Biological Sciences ASE eels 56.38%
Physical Sciences 12 106.2) 28:29
General Interest 2 14.9 4.0%
Proceedings; Obit. 39.1 10.4%
Index 4.0 iL

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY

113

This volume included three presidential ad-
dresses; 58 line cuts, and 17 halftones. Of the 55
papers, 33 (60.0%) were contributed by mem-
bers of the Academy. The previous volume con-
tained 62 articles of which 36 (58.1%) were by
Academy members.

Two facts worth noting in the above figures
are:

A. Volume 32 is the smallest volume ever
issued by the Academy since the initial vol-
umes. The following comparative figures, re-
duced approximately to the equivalent number
of pages in the new format, may be of interest:

Average number of pages for the period 1932-1941..... 442
Average number of pages for the period 1915, 1916, 1918,

OM rar sek Mann crapenie: cae oot tee au aUsieclte Ae rater w tae MAGA e rea Seon SHOWN te 539
INumbermoteparesmonmlOlig eee: Meier eie ree 485

The Board of Editors believes that the trend of
the last decade culminating in the 376 pages for
1942 is undesirable and that publication in the
JOURNAL should be stimulated.

B. The Journat undoubtedly fills a need for
the biological sciences (taxonomic articles),
whereas it is not sought for the publication of
articles in the physical sciences. Perhaps this
fact is the underlying reason why the JoURNAL
has been for some time secretly in disrepute
among many Academy members. The Board of
Editors believes that members of the Academy
should contribute more original articles of their
own.

The primary reason for the small size of the
volume just published was not lack of material,
however; on December 15 there were on hand
59 pages in proof and approximately 15 pages
in manuscript. Volume 32 was restricted in con-
tent in order that the budget allotment for the
JOURNAL might not be exceeded. A financial
statement follows together with some compara-
tive figures:

ee Illustrations Reprints
Maximum 1930-1941... $3410.78 $500.70 $618.44
Minimum 1930-1941... 2564.59 227.70 398.17
Average 1930-1941.... 2826.16 344.78 517.07
OA eae desta sa tetas 2650.17 294.46 602.70
OAD eee ru Latamame bay chat ak 2523.47 330.67 *(386.29)

* This amount includes only 10 months; bills for November
and December reprints have not yet been received.

In 1942 authors, institutions, or societies
paid the following amounts to cover the cost of
excess illustrations, additional charges, and re-
prints (see the 1941 figures for comparison):

168.85 90.18 344.55
32.47 107.89 *(367.02)

The Editors’ budget for 1942 was as follows (cf.
1941 figures for comparison) :

Printing,
Illustrations, Clerical Postage and
Reprints, Assistance Incidentals
and Mailing
194 eer $3100.00 $240.00 $60.00
19422 see 240.00 60.00

2800.00

114

The amounts charged to the Editors’ ac-
counts were as follows:

1941... 2941.08 240.00 28.93

1042) ee 2735.05 240.00 25.80
The unexpended balances are:

1941, coy: 158.92 0.00 31.07

1942) er 64.95 0.00 34.20

In addition to the cut in the Editors’ budget
there was a 6 per cent increase in printing
charges by the George Banta Publishing Co.
This resulted in an increase in cost of $58.06
for the last six months, or approximately
$87.08 for the year 1942 (the increase began
with the April issue). The following steps were
taken to meet these financial problems:

A. The format of the JouRNAL was changed
from a single column in 1941 to a double col-
umn in 1942. This resulted in a saving of

$146.31 for the last six months, or approxi-

mately $292.62 for the entire year 1942.

B. The author’s share in the cost of reprints

was increased with the January issue; the prac-
tice of giving an author 50 free reprints was
discontinued with the March issue. It is esti-
mated that a saving of $187 was effected in this
way.
C. Illustrations allowed an author were re-
duced from the equivalent of two pages of line-
cut drawings to one page and a half with the
May issue, and then further reduced to one
page with the November issue. The full effect
of the last reduction will not be felt until next
year; that of the first reduction was estimated
to be small.

D. Unusual costs of foreign, mathematical,
and tabular materials, as well as alterations
made in the proof by the author, were studied
by the Editors. Whereas these may be small in
comparison with the cost of illustrations indi-
vidually, they may become excessive when
totaled, as may be seen from the following

charges to the Academy:
Additional Typesetting
Charges 1939 1940 1941 1942

Foreign material... .. $68.82 $68.70 $75.19 $114.56
ables) jew tia eens 24.55 77.95 96.75 109.34
Mathematical material 67.08 20.12 113.87 26.96
Other Type Charges... 67.05 76.92 61.61 83.21
Alterations. 2.2... 4+. 107.15 99.60 101.60 93.99

It is evident that an article without illustra-
tions, but with sufficient typesetting changes,
may cost the Academy more than one with il-
lustrations, but with few typesetting changes.
The Board of Editors has taken steps to limit
the total additional charges to the Academy.
Members of the Academy can assist in this
economy by preparing their own manuscripts
with greater care and by insisting upon the
same carefulness in articles that they communi-
cate.

The Board of Editors wishes to express its

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 4

appreciation of the excellent editorial assist-
ance of Mr. Paut H. Orusenr. His services have
made possible a more uniform JOURNAL, as well
as a more efficient editorial routine with result-
ing financial gain to the Academy. The Senior
Editor is grateful for the willing cooperation of
the other members of the Board of Editors and
also of all the Associate Editors.

Respectfully submitted by G. ArTHUR
Cooper, JASON R. SwALLEeN, and RayMonpD
J. SEEGER, Senior Editor.

Report of the Custodian and Subscription
Manager of Publications

STOCKS OF PUBLICATIONS

The stocks of the Academy’s publications
have shown an increase during the year due to
continued donations from various sources ac-
companied by a very small number of sales. As
shown in the appended inventory there are 26
reserve sets (eight sets of vols. 1-30 of which
one is incomplete, lacking but six numbers,
seven sets of vols. 1-30 and 11 sets of vols. 16—
30). Most of this reserve, together with the
miscellaneous stocks including all of vols. 1-22,
is stored in Washington, while the chief sup-
plies of vols. 23-32 are stored with the printer
at Menasha, Wis.

INVENTORY OF STOCKS OF PUBLICATIONS—
DECEMBER 31, 1942
(Except where noted these are stored in Wash-
ington, C. in storage provided without
cost by the Smithsonian Institution and by
the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey)

Proceedings of the Washington Acad-
emy of Sciences:

Volumes 1-138 inclusive.......... 50 Sets
Reserve sets of the Journal of the
Washington Academy of Sciences:

Bound volumes 1—29+vol. 30 un-

Downids.oy ie te a ee oe 1 Set
Unbound volumes 1-30 (complete) . 6 Sets*
Unbound volumes 1-30 (incomplete,

lackimge@ Mos). so. ea eee 1 Set*
Unbound volumes 1-30........... 7 Sets*
Unbound volumes 16—-30.......... 11 Sets*

* Some numbers at Menasha.

Nonreserve volumes of the Journal of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences (in Washington):

Vol. No. Vols. Vol. No. Vols.
ier sttos elses re ee RR ae 2 19: est Ask Oe 11
CO ees er ree 4 20 obs eee 10
HEME OOM eRe 55S 5 DHS sect Be Cape eee 56
Sih Oe ee aoe 4 22 cain Shaan ee Oe 49
Qe eee cd scone ee 3 7 REE REAPER ARE Ae (5 4

UO ae oker ata Reamee ee PASE nS 2 DATS i. Muni aoe 12
1 En eeeiictccn erence aioe 9 DO UU Se eee 14
A Ae tr ae AEA orttiwe Mendelian ss of DO. o: ee ee ue eee 19
a Lea tre arch elias, coma Reet Le 11 11 Hiss ces See ee 21
De Ne ar i anette Accra Rem 6 De Rt sta MP ied BAW So 11
TOE aaa der 10 DO) coke hs ee 23
DIES S eaeeeis csceiaee Be 19 BOE Ace cle ee ae 29
Licence cee eee 14 o)) ROMA So be ee eager 7
ALS Bie viee Vers a Sr AS eee 13

Apr. 15, 1943 PROCEEDINGS

Also miscellaneous collection of odd numbers of
the Proceedings, the JourNnaL, the Directory
(1897 to 1941 inclusive), and reprints of special
articles.

SUBSCRIPTIONS
Owing to the international situation the sub-

scriptions as well as sales of publications have
been curtailed.

Nonmember subscriptions in United States 103
Nonmember subscribers in foreign countries 28
Nonmember subscribers (inactive) in en-

enemy-controlled areas................ 31
Subscriptions Geological Society of Wash-
RPA coe met Schick es 8 hye wee hl 13
EXPENDITURES

Because conditions have not warranted the
expenditures anticipated the amount actually
used has been but $27.37 of the budget allow-
ance, leaving an unexpended balance of $47.63.

Respectfully submitted by Wriuiam W.
Dien, Custodian and Subscription Manager of
Publications.

Report of the Committee of Tellers

The Committee of Tellers met on January
16, 1943. A total of 230 ballot envelopes were
delivered to the Committee by the Secretary.
Of these, 1 bore no signature and 3 bore the
signature of a member in arrears. In the re-
maining 226 envelopes there were found 206
ballots on the Amendments to the Constitution
and 219 ballots for Officers and Managers of the
Academy.

The count of the ballots on the Amendments
showed the following results:

Amendment No. 1 2 3 4 6 6
For amendment...... 193 198 202 200 205 # 205
Againstamendment... 11 6 2 3 0 0
INotavotingss 0.45. ..- 2 2 2 3 1 Ht

The count of the ballots on Officers of the Aca-
demy showed the following results:

For Against Not

Voting
For President, LELAND W. Parr... 214 0 5
For Secretary, FERDINAND G. BRIcK-
WHTOTDIDIO s Ga Gas sno ol otro ee onc eee 215 0 4
For Treasurer, HowarDS. RapPLEYE 213 0 6

Examination of the preferential ballot for
Managers by the Hare system showed 1 un-
marked ballot and 33 ballots that were invalid
-because. marked with crosses from which no
first choice could be determined, leaving 185
valid ballots. The Droop Quota was therefore
(185 +1) /(2+1) =62. The count of the ballots
showed the necessary quotas for FREDERICK D.
Rossini and JoHN E. Grar.

Respectfully submitted by Water Ram-
BERG, Chairman, Lewis W. Burz, Pavt 8.
ROLLER.

- THE ACADEMY

115

Election of Vice-Presidents

For the respective affiliated societies, the
Secretary presented the following nominations
for Vice-Presidents of the Academy:

Philosophical Society of Washington: RaymMonp
J. SEEGER

Anthropological Society of Washington: FranKx
M. SETzLER

Biological Society of Washington: Harry B.
HUMPHREY

Chemical Society of Washington: Hersert lL.
HALLER

Entomological Society of Washington: Austin H.
CLARK

National Geographic Society: ALEXANDER WET-
MORE

Geological Society of Washington: CLARENCE S.
Ross

Medical Society of the District of Columbia:
Frep O. Cor

Columbia Historical Society: ALLEN C. CLarK

Botanical Society of Washington: CHARLOTTE
ELLIOTT

Washington Section of the Society of American
Foresters: WILLIAM A. DayToNn

Washington Society of Engineers: Frank B.
ScHEETZ

Washington Section of the American Institute of
Electrical Engineers: Francis B. SILSBEE

Washington Section of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers: WALTER RAMBERG

Helminthological Society of Washington: Em-
METT W. PRICE

Washington Branch of the Society of American
Bacteriologists: RaLpu P. TITTsLER

Washington Section of the Institute of Radio
Engineers: Harry D1aAMoNnD

Washington Section of the American Society of
Civil Engineers: OWEN B. FRENCH

The Secretary was instructed to cast a unan-
imous ballot for these nominees.

Awards for Scientific Achievement for 1942

President Curtis announced the recipients
of the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve-
ment for 1942, as follows:

For the Biological Sciences, to—

RopertT S. CAMPBELL, assistant chief of the
Division of Range Research of the U. 8. For-
est Service, in recognition of his distin-
guished service in range research, particu-
larly in the development of range utilization
standards.

For the Engineering Sciences, to—

WALTER RAMBERG, senior physicist in the Sec-
tion on Engineering Mechanics at the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, in recognition of
his distinguished service in research on the
static and dynamic strength of structural ele-
ments, particularly in relation to aircraft.

116

For the Physical Sciences, to—

Mitton Harris, director of research for the
Textile Foundation and for the Textile Re-
search Institute, both having laboratories at
the National Bureau of Standards, in recog-
nition of his distinguished service in conduct-
ing fundamental research on the composition
and properties of textile fibers.

After a recess during which the 316th meeting
of the Academy (see below) was held, President
CurTIS appointed Past Presidents CHAMBLISS
and CRITTENDEN to escort the new President,
L. W. Parr, to the Chair. After a short address,
President Parr adjourned the meeting.

316TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

The 316th meeting of the Academy was held
in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club im-
mediately following the 45th annual meeting of
the Academy on January 21, 19438. President
Curtis called the meeting to order and ex-
plained the nature of the program arranged
for this meeting. Reports on governmental
publication of scientific research were pre-
sented by ATHERTON SEIDELL for the U. S.
Public Health Service, by Metvin C. MzeRRILL
and RaupH SHaAw for the U. 8. Department of
Agriculture, and Kasson §S. Gipson for the
National Bureau of Standards. Censorship of
scientific publications going abroad was de-
scribed by Epwarp D. Hitt, of the U. S.
Board of Economic Warfare. Open discussion
followed these reports, and ATHERTON SEIDELL
presented the following statement for the con-
sideration of the Academy:

“The Washington Academy of Sciences recom-
mends that: Research papers originating in gov-
ernmental laboratories and describing additions
to scientific knowledge be published in Federal
journals devoted to specific fields of scientific re-
search and that these journals be issued at regular
intervals and at subscription rates approximately
sufficient to cover their cost. The present method
according to which many individual agencies pub-
lish occasional bulletins or composite collections
of papers in many fields of science is not in the
opinion of the Academy the most-effective method
of distributing the information contained in the
reports.”

No action was taken on this recommenda-
tion.
FREDERICK D. Rossint, Secretary

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

545TH MEETING

The 545th meeting was held jointly with the
District of Columbia Section of the American
Society of Civil Engineers in the main auditor-
ium of the U. S. Chamber of Commerce on
Tuesday, September 22, 1942, at 8:15 p.m.
FRANK Howarb, president of the Standard Oil

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 33, NO. 4

Development Co., spoke on The manufacture
and use of synthetic rubber.

546TH MEETING

The 546th meeting was held at the George
Washington University on Thursday, October
8, 1942, at 8:15 p.m. At the conclusion of the
general meeting, the following divisional meet-
ings were held:

Biochemistry, M. X. SULLIVAN, presiding

The inorganic constituents of bone. S. B. HEN-
pricks and W. L. Hiuu (Bureau of Plant In-
dustry).

The catalase actiwity of the tissues of tumor-
bearing animals. JussE P. GREENSTEIN (Na-
tional Cancer Institute).

Heat-labile, avidin-uncombinable, species-spe-
cific vitamers of biotin. DEAN Burk and R. J.
WInzLER (National Cancer Institute).

Canine cystunuria. Urinary excretion of cyst-
une following the administration of homocystine,
homocysteine, and some derivatives of cystine and
cysteine. W. C. Hess and M. X. SuLLIVAN.

Organic chemistry, H. P. Warp, presiding

The structure of diketene. Francis O. RicE
(Catholic University of America).

Optical rotation as a measure of aromatic sub-
stitution influences. Warp PigmMan (National
Bureau of Standards).

4-Methyl-d-mannose and some of tts deriva-
twes. W. T. Haskins, Raymonp M. Hanw and
C.S. Hupson (National Institute of Health).

Physical chemistry, B. D. VAN EvEra,
presiding

The polymorphism of phosphoric oxide. W. L.
Hu, G. T. Faust, and 8S. B. Henpricxs (Bu-
reau of Plant Industry).

The influence of molecular size on the proper-
ties of cellulose acetate. Mitron Harris and
ARNOLD SooxKNE (Textile Foundation).

Measurement of mositure in gases by electrical
conductance at different pressures. EK. R. Wea-
vER (National Bureau of Standards).

Inorganic and analytical chemistry,
Roun E. STEVENS, presiding

The use of phosphate for the separation of co-
balt from tron. Victor Nort and R. C. WELLS
(Geological Survey).

Radium content of certain ultrabasic rocks.
Gorpon L. Davis (Geophysical Laboratory).

Determination of active oxygen in the presence
of lead and barium. MicHAEL FLEISCHER (Geo-
logical Survey).

Chemical and physical properties of leather.
Puiuie E. Tosias (National Bureau of Stand-
ards).

547TH MEETING

The 547th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club on Thursday, November 12, 1942, at 8:15
p.M. Max BERGMANN, of the Rockefeller Insti-
tute for Medical Research, spoke on The spect-

Apr. 15, 19438

fic action of proteolytic enzymes: Current prob-
lems and recent advances.

548TH MEETING

The 548th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club on Thursday, December 10, 1942, at 8:15
p.M. Gustav Ectorr, technical director of the
Universal Oil Products Co., addressed the so-
ciety on Substitute fuels in a world at war.

E. R. Smiru, Secretary.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Anthropological Society of Washington
at its annual meeting on January 19, 1943,
elected the following officers: President, GEORGE
S. Duncan; Vice President, Recina FLAn-
NERY; Secretary, WituiAM N. Fenton; Treas-
urer, T. Date Stewart; Members of the
Board of Managers, W. H. Giupert, H. W.
KRIEGER, JULIAN H. STEWARD, J. HE. WECKLER,
W. R. WEDEL.

A report of the membership and activities of
the Society since the last annual meeting fol-
lows: Life members, 2; active members, 41;
associate members, 11; total, 54.

The members elected during the year were:
Rev. GERALD DEsmonp, Miss JENNY REITSMA,
Wi.tu1am H. Spinxs, active members; Mrs.
WI.Lu1AM H. Spinks, associate member.

Two active members, CarL W. BisHop and
JoHN G. CarTER were lost by death. The So-
ciety voted to record its deep sense of loss at the
death of these members and to extend its sin-
cere condolences to their relatives.

The Treasurer’s report is as follows:

Funds invested in Perpetual Building
Association (with interest to

JE). eee $1,702.84
21 shares Washington Sanitary Im-

provement Co. (par value $10

(SE SPS) ee era 210.00
2 shares Washington Sanitary Hous-

ing Co. (par value $100 per

2.02102) 2 er 200 .00
U. S. Savings Bond, Series G...... 500 .00
LS TAD, (0201 er ere 263 .66

$2,876.50

PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

17
Bills outstanding:
To American Anthropological As-
SOCIABION:.- 5s = «4 $40. 40.00
$2, 836.50
Total as of January 19, 1942.... 2,679.94
TERE GO trey eh ees ed's. ke $ 156.56
Division of annual surplus
Previous 1943 T otal
Publication fund.. $50.04 52.18 102.22
Speakers fund ...;, 50.04 52-19 ~ 102.23
Investment fund.. 50.05 52.19 102.24

The Society acted as host to the American
Anthropological Association on the occasion of
the annual business meeting of the latter on
December 28, 1942, at the Cosmos Club.

It was voted that the Anthropological
Society of Washington affiliate with the Inter-
American Society of Anthropology and Geogra-
phy.

Papers presented before the regular meetings
of the Society were as follows:

January 20, 1942, 704th meeting, JosEpH E.
WECKLER, Cundiyo, a Spanish village in New
Mexico.

February 19, 1942, 705th meeting, held
jointly with the Washington Academy of Sci-
ences, G. C. VAILLANT, The Aztecs of Mexico.

March 17, 1942, 706th meeting, ALFRED
Msérraux, The Jesuits in South America.

April 21, 1942, 707th meeting, address of re-
tiring President, FRANK M. SrnrTzuer, Archeo-
logical accomplishments during the past decade
in the United States (this JOURNAL, 32(9): 253-
259. Sept. 1942).

October 20, 1942, 708th meeting, DouGLas
L. Ouiver, Ethnography on Bougainville, Solo-
mon Islands.

November 17, 1942, 709th meeting, FRoE-
LIcH G. Ratnney, Anthropology and the Alaska-
Canada Highway.

December 17, 1942, 710th meeting, held
jointly with the Washington Academy of Sci-
ences, MatrHmw W. StTIRuine, Anthropological
explorations in Netherlands New Guinea.

WiuuiAM N, Fenton, Secretary.

118

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 4

@Obituartes

HERMAN STABLER’s untimely death in Wash-
ington on November 24, 1942, brought profound
sorrow and a sense of irreparable loss to the
Federal Service, the engineering profession, and
his community. Of English descent and Quaker
parentage, Herman Stabler was born on Febru-
ary 3, 1879, at Brighton, Montgomery County,
Md. His early elementary education was fol-
lowed by one year at Pacific College, Newburg,
Oreg., and four years at Earlham College, Rich-
mond, Ind., where he developed a bent for
chemical and civil engineering and received the
B.S. degree in 1899. After a year of special
engineering study at Columbian (now George
Washington) University, Washington, D. C.,
he served for the ensuing two years as instruc-
tor in mathematics and surveying at the Na-
tional Correspondence Institute in that city.

In December 1903 Stabler entered the Fed-
eral service as a hydrographic aid in the Hydro-
graphic (now Water Resources) Branch of the
Geological Survey and until 1909 was engaged
in studies of stream pollution, water quality,
and effect of suspended matter on silting of
streams in various parts of the country. While
in the Reclamation Service in 1909-10 he com-
pleted a systematic study of the waters likely to

be used on reclamation projects throughout the

West to determine the influence of salinity on
vegetable growth and the probable rate of silt-
ing in future reservoirs and canals. During
these studies he devised a method of classifying
waters for industrial purposes from analytical
data expressed ionically, in parts per million,
that is still widely used.

In 1911 Stabler became a member of the di-
vision of hydrographic classification in the
newly created Land Classification Branch,
thereafter succeeding N. C. Grover as chairman
in June 1913, becoming assistant chief in 1920,
and succeeding W. C. Mendenhall as branch
chief in November 1922. In this period he be-
came intimately acquainted with the natural
resources of the West and the problems of their
development through his direction of the exten-
sive field and office investigations required to
determine the power value and reservoir possi-
bilities of streams in public-land States and the
suitability of public lands for designation under
the enlarged homestead acts of 1909 et seq.,
and the stock-raising homestead act of 1916.

He participated actively thereafter in the for-
mulation of Federal policies affecting the use of
public lands and the conservation of their na-
tural resources, and assisted materially in or-
ganizing the work and procedure of the Federal
Power Commission at its beginning in 1920.

On July 1, 1925, Stabler became chief of the
Survey’s Conservation Branch, created on that
date to coordinate and carry on jointly the
functions of land classification, theretofore dis-
charged by the Land Classification Branch, and
the work of supervising operations for mineral
production from public and Indian lands pur-
suant to the Federal mineral-leasing laws;
theretofore done by the Bureau of Mines. To
this position, which he retained to the day of
his death, he brought a broad perspective on
western problems. He was responsible in no
small part for legalizing the entry by Federal oil
and gas lessees into agreements with each other
or with others for the unit or cooperative devel-
opment of oil and gas fields containing Govern-
ment lands; for the replacement of the pros-
pecting-permit system of disposing of Federal
oil and gas lands with a straight leasing system;
for requiring the measurement of oil from Fed-
eral and Indian lands on a 100-per cent basis
less actual impurities instead of an arbitrary
96- or 97-per cent basis that assumed the differ-
ence to be impurities; for the assessment of
compensatory royalty to offset drainage of oil
or gas from Federal lands through wells on ad-
joining non-Federal lands; and for litigation,
seeking to establish the right in the Secretary of
the Interior to determine the value for royalty
purposes of oil produced under Federal leases
and disposed of at prices incompatible with its
actual worth.

Indicative of his character and the variety of
his interests was his confession a few months
before his death that the most memorable and
satisfying experiences of his life were his mar-
riage, November 1, 1905, to Bertha R. Buhler,
of Washington, D. C., who survives him; his
participation in the topographic survey of Col-
orado River as a member of the Survey’s Grand
Canyon Expedition in 1923; his admission to
the hole-in-one club at the Columbia Country
Club, Chevy Chase, Md.; and his service as a
director of the American Society of Civil Engi-
neers from 1935 to 1937.—Joun D. NorTHrop

Apr. 15, 1943

FraNK Dawson ADAMS, a corresponding
member of the AcapEmy, died on December 26,
1942, after a brief illness, at his home in Mont-
real, Canada.

Dr. Adams was born on September 17, 1859,
in Montreal; he was graduated from McGill
University with first rank honors in natural
science in 1878, and, under the inspiration of
Sir William Dawson, chose geology as his major
subject. He continued his studies at Sheffield
Scientific School, Yale University, at Heidel-
berg, Germany, where he obtained the Ph.D.
degree ‘summa cum laude”’ in 1892, and at
Zurich.

He joined the Geological Survey of Canada
in 1880 and continued with that service until
he was appointed lecturer in geology at McGill
University in 1889. Four years later, upon the
retirement of Sir William Dawson, Dr. Adams
was appointed Logan professor of geology and
head of the department. He became dean of the
faculty of applied science in 1908, and later
vice-principal of McGill University and dean of
the faculty of graduate studies and research.

Contemporaneous with his academic work,
Dr. Adams was very active in geological field-
work and research, and approximately 90
papers were published in leading scientific
journals in America and Britain as a result of
his investigations. His experimental work on
the flow of rocks was carried out over a period
of years, and the results contributed largely to
the clarification of geological thought on meta-
morphism in the earth’s crust, the depth of the
zone of flow, and on the study of ore deposits.

Dr. Adams was the recipient of many aca-
demic honors, among which were honorary de-
grees from Bishop’s College, Tufts College,
University of Toronto, Queen’s University,
McGill University, and Mount Allison Uni-
versity. A mere list of some of his distinctions
marks the man as outstanding among his
fellows: fellow of the Geological Society of
America, 1888; fellow of the Geological Society
of London, 1895; recipient of the Lyell medal of
the latter Society, 1906; fellow of the Royal

OBITUARIES

HN;

Society of London, 1907; president of the Ca-
nadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
1910-11; president, International Congress of
Geologists, 1913; president, Geological Society
of America, 1918; president, Royal Society of
Canada, 1913; honorary member, Institution of
Mining and Metallurgy; honorary member,
American Institute of Mining and Metal-
lurgical Engineers; honorary member, Engi-
neering Institute of Canada; foreign associate,
National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A.; cor-
responding member, New York Academy of
Sciences; correspondent of the Academy of
Sciences of Philadelphia; correspondent, Natu-
ral History Society of Ekaterinburg, Russia;
member, American Philosophical Society; cor-
responding member, Geological Society of
Stockholm; foreign honorary member, Ameri-
can Academy of Arts and Science; honorary
member, Mineralogical Society of Russia;
honorary member, Geological Society of Bel-
gium; honorary member, Seismological Society
of America; honorary member, Academia Asi-
atica, Teheran, Persia; foreign member, Swed-
ish, and now Royal Swedish, Academy of
Science.

Dr. Adams was a man of broad culture and
wide travel. For some years after his retirement
from active university work he traveled to
libraries all over the world to accumulate the
basic material for his important book The birth
and development of the geological sciences, his
last major contribution.

Interests as wide as his learning led him to
take an active and leading part in the affairs of
Rotary, the Boy Scouts, the Y.M.C.A., the
Day Shelter for Unemployed Men, and other
equally significant organizations. He was a
devoted Anglican and was greatly interested in
the welfare of the Church. A conclusion may be
made in the words of Dean Dixon, who knew
Dr. Adams intimately: ““Few men have ac-
complished so much in a quiet unobtrusive
way. The thing about his life that impresses me
is the sense of completion which takes away the
sting of death.” J. J. O’NEILL

‘CONTENTS —

ew wt haa 7

tick, Dermacentor variabilis Say. Oscar E. Tauser, ANNE HL
GER Tauper, CHARLES R. Joye, and Wis N. Bruce. . |

" Toxrcotocy.—Toxicity of some dinitrophenols to the » American d do

~ Ewromonoey. —Synoptic revision of fhe testaceipennis ‘group
beetle genus Phyllophaga. LawRENCE Ww. Sayror. . :

~ «

: of ;

v <

PROCEEDINGS: [HE ACADEMY so) Ut oe ee

PRrocenpines: CHEMICAL SOCINTY......... 2.2000. +42.)

PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY......... aoe

Oxrrvarins: HERMAN STapueR, FranK D. Apams........

‘This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Bt ss es
‘ or ‘
ne aS

May 15, 1943

JOURNAL

OF THE

OF SCIENCES

“BOARD OF EDITORS

G. ArtTHuR CooPER JASON R. SwWALLEN L. V. JuDsSON
U. 8S. NATIONAL’ MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

W. Epwarps DEemInae C. F. W. MuEsEBECK
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Haraup A. REHDER Epwin Kirx
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT e Witiram N. FENTON

BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

JAMES I, HorrMaNn pe
CHEMICAL SOCIETY POSOINIAN BA

eae
PUBLISHED MONTHLY ns {Va wy
BY THE | a
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
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AT MreNnasHA, WISCONSIN™

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Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925.
> Authorized January 21, 1933.

No. 5

Journal of the Wachuievon Academy of Sciences

This JOURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: oy
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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoLUME 33

ASTROPHYSICS.—The physical chemistry of a cooling planet.

A planet, starting as a mass of vapor torn
from the sun and approaching the present
condition of the earth, must pass through a
number of well-marked epochs as its tem-
perature falls. Its initial and final states may
be studied, but intermediate conditions
must be arrived at by deduction from the
amounts of various elements present and
their physical and chemical conditions at
various temperatures. What would be the
first crust to form, what was the composi-
tion and pressure of the atmosphere at a
certain surface temperature, when did the
ocean start, and how rapidly did it grow?
The answers to these and similar important
geologic questions may be obtained in ap-
proximate form from known data and

principles, yet this field has aroused little -

interest. While the critical constants of a
few elements and the dissociation constants
of many minerals are still unknown, the
lack of these introduces only minor uncer-
tainties in the results.

The writer in 1926 presented a brief out-
line? of the epochs through which a cooling
earth must have passed, omitting most of
the physical relationships (assumed well
kncwn) used in arriving at the conclusions.
Quotations from that paper by geologists
indicate that the subject should be covered
in far more detail. The objective is to recon-
struct a history of the earth, not on a time
scale but on a temperature scale, which is
far more interesting and important to geolo-
gists.

Aside from temperature, the elements to
be dealt with are those listed by F. W.
Clarke in his Data of geochemistry as con-

1 Received March 15, 1948.

2 Nurrina, P. G., Pressures in planetary atmos-
ee Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 16: 254.

26.

May 15, 1943

No. 5

P. G. NutTtTInG.

stituting the 10-mile crust of the earth.
Whether the bulk of the core consists
chiefly of iron is of little consequence in the
surface phenomena under discussion. Hav-
ing a critical temperature probably above
4,500° K., iron would become a fluid sphere
at an early stage. Iron alloys freely with but
relatively few other metals (nickel, chro-
mium, manganese... ), and the nature of
the residual vapors trapped in crustal rocks
suggests the dominance of iron in any al-
loys that may constitute the earth’s core.
Clarke’s tables show how eruptive rocks
(95 percent) dominate the lithosphere, for
the weighted average of all portions, in-
cluding the oceans, the atmosphere, and
all sedimentary rocks, differs very little
from that of the eruptives; also that the
hydrogen as water, the nitrogen of the air,
and the carbon of living things, coal, and
oil, so prominent in our lives, are almost
negligible relative to other elements.

In Table 1 are given Clarke’s weighted
mean relative amounts of the various ele-
ments occurring in the earth’s 10-mile crust,
including the hydrosphere (oceans and
lakes) and the atmosphere. To these have
been added lists of the melting points, boil-
ing points at present atmospheric pressure
and critical temperatures, all on the abso-
lute scale (273+° C.). The fourth column
is obtained from the third by multiplying
by 1.5 according to the Guldberg rule that
the boiling point is always about two-thirds
of the critical temperature on the absolute
scale. It varies from 0.58 to 0.66 in known
cases.

A temperature of 5,000° is reasonable for
a planet just drawn from the sun by a pass-
ing star. At 5,000° there are, of course, no
compounds present, and Table 1 shows that
there can be no liquids, for all elements

121

Sp
ZO.
“4 —_

122

i
TABLE 1.—ELEMENTS OF THE EaRTH’s CRUST

Relative | Melting Boiling Critical
Element abun- point point tempera-
dance SKS: OK. ture °K.
Oxygen...... 46.20 54.8 90 155
Siliconsen ase 25.67 1680 2870 4300
Aluminum... . 7.50 932 2070 3100
Trony2 see es Ail 1708 3300 4900
Calcium...... 3.39 1080 1440 2160
Sodium...... 2.63 370.7 1153 1730
Potassium.... 2.40 335.5 1033 1550
Magnesium... 1.93 924 1380 2070
Hydrogen.... 0.87 14.0 20.4 32
Titanium..... 0.58 2070 3300 4900
Halogens..... 0.22 171 (Cl) 240 360
Phosphorus 0.11 317 553 830
Manganese 0.09 1530 2170 3250
C@arboneenece: 0.08 3800 4500 6700
S, Ba, Sr,N.. 0.15 = — —
Allothers..... 0.47 _— — —

except perhaps carbon are above their
critical temperatures. Transmutations of
elements, such as go on in the larger hotter
stars, will have ceased except for the slow
decay of a few scarce radioactive ones.
Pressures near the center must have been
near what they are now, about 17 X105
atmospheres or 12,500 tons per square inch.

At 5,000° such a mass of dense vapors
would be subject to rapid cooling by radia-
tion from its outer layers. Only a slight cool-
ing would permit combinations of the ele-
ments (as oxides, carbides, etc.) with an
evolution of heat amounting to a few hun-
dreds of (kg) calories per gram. Such com-
pounds would condense to liquids and fall
back as rain to where the temperature was
sufficient to vaporize and redissociate them,
exciting visible line spectra of the elements.
Thus such a mass of vapors would possess a
bright photosphere. Chemical combination
excites only band spectra and these chiefly
in the infra-red. A mass of matter at 5,000°
would in short be a violently agitated body
of elementary vapors having a photosphere
giving off bright-lined spectra of all elements
but containing no liquids or chemical com-
pounds except at extreme heights. The rapid
transfer of heat by dissociation and com-
bination farther out as well as by radiation
and convection is being given attention by
astrophysicists and is of primary impor-
tance.

At 4,000° conditions are vastly altered.
Iron, titanium, and silicon are below their

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 38, NO. 5

critical temperatures and hence will largely
condense to form a liquid core, a core con-

. taining-minor amounts of tungsten, molyb-

denum, and other metals as alloys, and pos-
sibly a little of a few oxides and carbides in
solution. There is little information on
phase relations, critical temperatures, and
dissociation constants at such temperatures.
From the relatively low stability of iron
oxides and carbides, liquid iron at 4,000°
would be expected to float the stable car-
bides and oxides of other metals. In Table
2 are collected the available data on the
higher melting compounds.

TABLE 2.—HIGHER MELTING COMPOUNDS

ee Boiling MS Boiling
Com ies temper. me temper-
temper- Compound |temper-
pound ature ature
ature 6 ature 2
°C C. °C. C.
AUN ses 2,200 |(Decomp.)|} La:O; 2,000 4,200
MgAl.O...|.2,135 — IMIROSeccc 2,800 —_—
Al.O3. . 2,050 2,250 MnO 1,650 _—
BaO)..- 1,923 | (2,000) || Mn;O. 1105 —_
BasiOs; 1,604 — IMIOs 6s 20 0 2,620 3,700
BesN 2,200 |d 2,240 MoC:....| — 4,500
BeO..... 2,570 3,900 Si@: setae 2,700 —
Boron 2,300 2,550 SiOze eee 1,700 |d 2,200
IBe@ apace 2,350 3,500 ThO, 2,800 4,400
IBINGReee 2,730 | (Subl.) ARUN ates 2,930 —
CdSe. s: 1,750 | (Subl.) WW) oaisiostne 3,370 4,727
CaC2..... 2,200 — WiC. cutee 2,777 | (6,000)
CaQurx.- ISPs 2,850 UC 258 2,260 4,100
CeOz..... 1,950 — VOCs outs 2,830 3,900
Cr;C: 1,890 3,800 ZrOz..... 2,700 4,300
Fe.03 1 ’ 565 == ZrSiQy...| 2 ’ 550 =
Fe:C..... 1,875 —

Pressures at 4,000°, due to the atmos-
phere above the liquid surface, can only be
guessed without a much more complete
knowledge of high-temperature compounds.
That pressure was certainly more than
the weight of the 10 mile crust (4,300 atmos-
pheres or 32 tons/sq. inch) and probably
less than ten times that. It was certainly
well over all known critical pressures so
that all elements having critical tempera-
tures below 4,000° were either liquid or
solid. Those having critical temperatures
above 4,000° were vapors.

Of the few compounds probably stable
(undissociated) at such temperatures and
pressures, the carbides of boron, calcium,
chromium, molybdenum, silicon, vanadium,
and uranium and the oxides of beryllium,

May 15, 1943

calcium, magnesium, lanthanum, thorium,
and zirconium seem the most likely. Other
oxides and carbides than those would be too
unstable to exist except as transients in the
outer layers. There were certainly no ni-
trides or silicates of any kind. The spec-
trum of a planet at 4,000° would still consist
chiefly of bright lines with some even re-
versed but all on a continuous background.
- At 3,000-2,500°, while the core is still
liquid iron and iron alloys, the first solids
appear, probably as float on the liquid
sphere. The list of stable oxides and carbides
is the same as at 4,000°. However, some of
these, such as WC and UC,, are heavier
than iron and would sink in it, perhaps de-
composing and losing their carbon to the
iron. Of the compounds that are stable and
solid at 2,500°, probably the more impor-
tant are the oxides of beryllium, calcium,
magnesium, and zirconium; silicon carbide
(carborundum) and titanium nitride. The
light carbides of boron and calcium freeze
at about 2,300°, and should be abundant in
liquid form at 2,500°. There is still no
permanent silica or silicates as these decom-
pose at about 2,200°. Aside from the ap-
pearance of the first stable solids the picture
at 2,500° differs little from that at 4,000°.
Hydrogen and nitrogen require special
consideration at this point. While according
to Clarke (Table 1) hydrogen constitutes
less than 1 percent of the 10-mile outer
layer, it is sufficient to form all the oceans or
enough to cover the entire earth to a depth
of 2,600 meters or 1.6 miles. There was
abundant oxygen to combine with the
hydrogen; there is free oxygen today, in the
air. Very little hydrogen could have been
used up in hydrides for these are readily dis-
sociated at high temperatures. Also very
little nitrogen was used as nitrides for the
same reason and much of it still remains
free. Free carbon, however, is practically
nonexistent. Clarke’s data cover carbon
chiefly as carbonates, hydrocarbons, and
carbon dioxide, but not deeply buried car-
bides of which there may have been large
quantities. At 2,500° there could have been
no hydrocarbons or carbonates; the ques-
tion is the probable division of carbon be-
tween the dioxide and the metal carbides,

NUTTING: PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF A COOLING PLANET

123

particularly silicon carbide, which must
have been abundant in vapor form since it
sublimes far below its melting and dis-
sociation temperatures.

Both water vapor and carbon dioxide are
very stable at high temperatures as shown
in Table 3 taken from Nernst’s Theoretical
chemistry, 5th English edition, p. 783; data
of Bjerrum and others taken about 1912 by
an ingenious and precise explosion method.
Dissociations are given for six temperatures
and three pressures for each gas, in percen-
tages.

TABLE 3.—DISSOCIATION OF WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDE

Water vapor Carbon dioxide

°K
: 10
1 atm. | 10 atm. | 100 atm.| 1 atm. | 10 atm. Are
E000 rs | 2258 1.29 0.556 AT 1.14 0.531
x10 | x10 10m SOR | AOR | xX 1OR
1,500. .| 0.0202} 0.00935} 0.00433) 0.0483} 0.0224) 0.0104
2,000..| 0.582 | 0.270 0.125 2.05 0.960 | 0.445
2,500. ..| 4.21 1.98 0.927 |17.6 8.63 4.09
3,000. .}14.4 7.04 33.83" 54.8 32.2 16.9
3,500. ./30.9 6-1 7.79 83.2 63.4 39.8

Log dissociation plotted against either
1/T or log pressure gives essentially a
straight line. Dissociation is small except
at the higher temperatures and decreases
markedly at high pressures. In a contest be-
tween oxygen and silicon for the carbon it is
difficult to say which would be favored but
both compounds would be present.

With a surface temperature of 2,500° the
earth’s atmosphere at lower levels must
have consisted mainly of heavy metallic
vapors and the vapors of a few stable
compounds of high density. These would
condense at higher levels, rain down, and
revaporize. Iron was probably metallic but
may have been present as oxide. At inter-
mediate and higher levels were large known
quantities of water vapor (1.85 tons per >
square inch) mixed with large but uncertain
amounts of carbon dioxide. The water
would condense and rain downward much
as it now does but in enormously greater
volume and never reaching the surface. At
the outer limits would be cool free gases.

The observed outer atmospheres of Jupi-
ter and Saturn invite the question of what

124

happens when the proportion of hydrogen
is large rather than small as on the earth.
Abundant hydrogen, with plentiful nitrogen
and but limited oxygen, would make pos-
sible the formation of much ammonia to
form a cool, stable outer blanket, even with
a core temperature of a thousand degrees.

At 1,500° to 1,200° the surface is vastly
different from what it was at 2,500°. Silica
and szlicates have formed, some in solid
others in fluid condition. All are fairly stable
below 2,000°. They would cover the old
core miles deep and suppress, chiefly as
silicates, all but a few metallic vapors. At
least the more volatile silicates would form
the bulk of the lower atmosphere and would
vaporize, rise, and reprecipitate in enor-
mous storms. The lower layers of silicates
would contain the less volatile metals,
oxides, and silicates; the outer layers were
probably the original igneous rock of the
present lithosphere. There were still no
carbonates and, of course, no hydrocarbons,
and the water was still all in the outer at-
mosphere.

At 500° C. (a dull red heat) many car-
bonates and some hydrates, fluorides,
sulphides, etc., are stable, but most of these
probably formed at lower temperatures,
long afterward. The oceans were still in the
vapor state at high levels of the atmosphere.
Most of the acid anhydrides would be stable
and in the air. Surface showers would con-
sist largely of fused and vaporized salts.
They must have been huge and violent
compared with any present-day storms but
trivial in comparison with the snowstorms
of silica in the range of temperatures from
1,800° to 2,500°. The range from 400° to
700° might be called the chemical epoch.

At the critical temperature of water
374° C., atmospheric pressure was about
252 atmospheres, considerably higher than
the critical pressure of water, 217.8 atmos-
pheres. Hence, condensation of a fraction
(0.137) of the water vapor to liquid water oc-
curred as soon as the temperature fell below
374° C.,and 13.7 percent (=1—217.8/252.3)
of the total water must have become liquid
as cooling proceeded beyond that point.
That fraction of the total water is sufficient
to cover the entire earth to a depth of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

2,607 X0.187=357 meters, or 1,171 feet.
Local pressures in depressions may well
have been several times that depth of water.
Therefore in passing 374° C. pressures
abruptly changed from an evenly dis-
trebuted pressure of 252 atmospheres to one
of 218 atmospheres plus local pressures of
probably 300 atmospheres, an excess of 7
tons per square inch. This abrupt change
from distributed to localized pressure was
pointed out in Science (Oct. 1911) and
further elaborated in my 1926 paper. At
300° C., two-thirds of the water was liquid
and the pressure of the vapor about 85 at-
mospheres; at 200° C., 95 percent was liquid
and the pressure 15 atmospheres.

The first oceans were therefore sizable
bodies of water. Evaporation and precipita-
tion must have been extremely rapid as was
solution and erosion. Localized pressures
must have caused considerable rock move-
ments, chiefly lateral thrusts. The distribu-
tion of crustal strains must have varied
considerably as the depth of the oceans in-
creased. Some of the present elevated areas
(the ‘‘positive’ areas of paleogeographers)
may have originated during this epoch.

The fall of mean surface temperatures be-
low about 370° C. must have marked the
beginning of the epoch of hydration, solu-
tion, and sedimentation—the water epoch—
which is still in progress. At the higher
temperatures, however, rates of solution
and sedimentation must have been many
times present rates. With all oceans boiling,
and a continuously saturated atmosphere
with copious rains of high-temperature
water, all but the most insoluble rocks such
as the granites, must have been rapidly
eroded and redeposited. Overloaded solu-
tions must have been abundant and violent
in their activity, forming material that
would later be comparable with the pegma-
tites. Owing to the size of the first oceans it
appears doubtful whether they ever ap-
proached saturation in any constituent.
Any attempt to calculate the age of the
ocean on the basis of the present rate of ac-
cumulation of its salts must give results far
from the truth.

Living matter and the formation of hydro-
carbons from it became possible only in the

May 15, 1943

very recent thermal history of the earth
when temperatures were not above 50° C.
At about this stage the dense vapor blanket
in the upper atmosphere, which previously
had equalized polar and equatorial tempera-
tures, probably thinned out sufficiently to
permit polar regions to become cooler than
equatorial. Hence, it appears probable that
primitive forms of life originated in the
‘polar regions. The carbon of all living mat-
ter, of course, all came from the CO of the
air, which is only 1 part in 30,000 of that
fixed in the carbonate rocks. All this carbon
is less than 0.1 percent (0.08 percent) of the
earth’s crust. How much more is still deeply
buried as carbides we have no present means
of knowing.

Attention should be called to the simple
relation between the time and the tempera-
ture scales. Since the radiation (in energy
per unit time) from a body is proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute tempera-
ture and in this case the mass is constant,
the specific heat and surface area are ap-
proximately so, and the cooling is all by
radiation to space, the rate of energy loss is
proportional to the rate of temperature
lowering, dT/dt, which in turn is propor-

OCEANOGRAPH Y.—Boundaries of the Humboldt Current.
(Communicated by CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER.)

Stanford University.

Not until Gunther’s report on the work of
the William Scoresby became available was
it possible to delineate with any degree of
accuracy the boundaries of the Humboldt
Current. Yet even at the present time these
limits are still too indefinite to provide for
the drafting of satisfactory graphs or
charts. The southern boundary shifts with
the seasonal march of the prevailing west
wind zone; these shifts have not been deter-
mined, because the above examination oc-
curred during the winter and did not afford
data for summer, early autumn, or late
spring in the Southern Hemisphere. The
northern boundary vacillates with the
southward approach of the warm counter-
current (commonly called El Nifio) during
the southern summer; this advance, al-

1 Received March 31, 1943.

MEARS: BOUNDARIES OF THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT

125

tional to T*. Hence,
dT /dt=CT* or T?=ai+b, by integration.

In other words 7" is a linear function of the
time. The constant b depends on the chosen
zero of time and a upon the time unit, years
or millennia.

The writer has attempted to sketch the
probable early physical history of the earth
on a temperature instead of a time scale
based on known physical chemical data and
on the chemical composition of its surface.
The subdivisions inferred are great natural
epochs; all gas and vapor, the first liquid
core, the first solids, the first stable silicates
and the formation of the silicate crust, the
formation of the first and later carbonates,
the first surface water, the abrupt change in
pressure distribution, and finally the forma-
tion of hydroxides and of hydrocarbons. The
reasoning is speculative rather than deduc-
tive because of the lack of important data,
yet the conclusions check well with known
geologic facts, and it is hoped they may help
to establish others. It is hoped also that it
may further emphasize the value of physical
chemistry in geologic studies.

Euiot G. Mears,

though of annual occurrence, also uae not
been plotted.

Gunther’s own account lacked in “dean
tion. His delimitation of the western bound-
ary of the current proper was hindered by
the invasions of warm-water wedges from
the west during the time of his survey. For
reasons attributed to economy, the expedi-
tion was unable to locate the western bound-
ary of the Humboldt Current’s so-called
‘oceanic twin’’ known as the Peru Oceanic
Current, and, since this ‘‘oceanic twin”
represents water affected by that of the
Humboldt Current proper or its upwelling,
naturally the westward ultimate limits of
the Humboldt Current’s effects have not
been determined.

Furthermore, Gunther’s exact data were
secured in the single year of 1931. Schweig-
ger’s research, which has covered a period of

126

16 years, indicates that 1931 was an ab-
normal year; in fact, it was one of a series
of three years of attempted warm water in-
vasions of major proportions (1942, p. 37).
In that one year Gunther’s observations
were confined to the months from May to
September for the entire examination, and
he laments the brevity of time allotted the
work because of the impossibility it allowed
for noting variations which appeared to be
striking during a single month, for instance,
at Callao. He pointed out that a long-con-
tinued, consistent, and more widespread in-
vestigation was necessary to interpret and
correlate these variations (Gunther, 1936,
pp. 169, 170, 244). Nevertheless, Gunther’s
report represents the most careful scientific
survey of the Humboldt Current that has
been made; it does afford a basis for valu-
able generalizations.

Gunther defines the Humboldt Current
as “a narrow belt of cold water which runs
up the west coast of South America roughly
from Valparaiso to the Gulf of Guayaquil.
...Itis that part of the South Pacific anti-
cyclonic circulation in which the northerly
current is most conspicuous; and whose
physical, chemical and biological character-
istics are most affected by admixture with
water upwelled from the lower layers’’ (p.
109). It stems from the West Wind Drift,
which is a much broader portion of the same
anticyclonic movement.

The origin of the water in the Humboldt
Current has been a much mooted question
since Alexander von Humboldt suggested
that it came from the Antarctic regions
(1822, vol. 2, p. 59). But since Deacon’s re-
port to the Discovery Committee in 1937, it
has become known that the Antarctic Con-
vergence, which is the northern boundary of
Antarctic surface water, occurs in the east-
ern Pacific between 80° and 90° west longi-
tude farther south than 60° latitude (1937,
pp. 38-39). The writer has found no state-
ment of any evidence of the Humboldt Cur-
rent farther south than 473° south latitude,
and Gunther places its probable extreme
southern limit at 41° south latitude (1936,
p. 172). Therefore, it appears that the Hum-
boldt Current takes its origin some 15°
or more northward of the limit of Antarctic

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

surface water. It must be concluded that
from its beginning the current is composed
of subantarctic surface water.

This subantarctic surface water con-
tinues at the surface in the Humboldt Cur-
rent, mixed, of course, with water upwelled
at times from a warm subsurface current,
until the cool current crosses the Sub-
tropical Convergence, which Gunther lo-
cated between 24° and 26° south latitude.
In other words, in the southern winter of
1931, the subantarctic water remained at
the surface as far north as the stretch of
coast between Caldera and Antofagasta
(1936, p. 159), or on about one-third of the
current’s early course. Over approximately
two-thirds of the flow, therefore, but ex-
cluding the upwelled elements, the surface
water is subtropical rather than subantarc-
tic. Often marked by rip tides from horizon
to horizon (Schott, 1935), the subtropical
surface water remains at the surface until
the Humboldt Current reaches its northern
boundary, which is the Tropical Converg-
ence. Here, at the surface, the Humboldt
Current meets tropical water along an ir-
regular line extending roughly from Punta
Aguja to the Galapagos Islands. Since the
current under discussion extends from its
origin in the West Wind Drift to this north-
ern boundary formed by the Tropical Con-
vergence, it can be stated definitely that
exclusive of upwelled elements the Hum-
boldt Current consists at the surface of
“two distinct water masses,” the sub-
antarctic and subtropical.

But since the feature that gives character
to the Humboldt Current-is its upwelling,
Gunther assigns first importance to sub-
antarctic water because the upwelling is
drawn chiefly from subantarctic flow and
comes from subsurface as well as from sur-
face layers. At the Subtropical Convergence
subantarctic water dives below the surface
layer, yet it continues as a subsurface cur-
rent as far as Callao. Throughout the survey
of the William Scoresby, below the sub-
antarctic water, indeed, below surface
layers of whatever constituents, there was a
southward moving, warm return subsurface
current, beneath which Antarctic Inter-
mediate water flowed northward. Normally,

May 15, 1943

the return subsurface current varied in
depth from 40 to 150 meters, and reached a
depth undetermined by Gunther’s report,
for he stated that upwelling never touched
Antarctic water. Yet upwelling ranged from
extremes of 40 meters to 360 meters, with a
mean of 133 meters. During the period of
the above examination, the surface layers
and the subsurface return current were suf-
ficiently thick to prevent the reaching of
Antarctic water by the process of upwelling
(1936, p. 200). This significant finding has
not been accepted as yet by many leading
scientists. For example, C. Vallaux (1989,
p. 80), in reviewing the work of the William
Scoresby, noted that there might be a slow
rise of Antarctic Intermediate water. Sver-
drup (1942, p. 189), in calculating the source
of water within the Humboldt Current, in-
cludes the Antarctic Intermediate water.

Because of upwelling, Gunther’s study
very definitely fixes the lower boundary of
the Humboldt Current at the stated 40 to
360 meters, with a mean of 133 meters,
during the time of his survey; it excludes
entirely all Antarctic water. Whether or not
the current is deeper or shallower at other
seasons and during other years remains to
be shown by future investigations.

His eastern boundary appears, also, to be
fixed. It is the coastline of the South Ameri-
can west coast between the northern and
southern boundaries of the Humboldt Cur-
rent. During times of normal strength and
dominance of the Humboldt Current, it oc-
cupies the position inshore.

However, the writer wishes to point out
that Schweigger’s observations of the warm-
water bands during 1939 and 1941, when the
upwelling seemed to abate within the Hum-
boldt Current, indicate a possible rise to
the surface of portions of the warm, re-
turn southward-moving subsurface current.
Temperatures below the surface at La
Libertad, Ecuador, during 1938, point to a
piling up of hot waters on the northern
boundary of the Humboldt Current at the
same time that the exceptionally strong
Humboldt Current of 1938 reached its ex-
treme minimum of temperature over a
period of 16 years. When upwelling abated,
it would appear that the pent-up, subsur-

MEARS: BOUNDARIES OF THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT

127

face, warm, southward-moving current
moved out more strongly. Schweigger found
a warm, oceanic torrent along the outer
shores of the islands in Pisco Bay during
the autumn of 1939; a few miles southward
of this torrent the normal Humboldt Cur-
rent was encountered again. The torrent-
force might be explained by the proximity
of the strong Humboldt Current, which
forced the return current to take its accus-
tomed place beneath the surface.

That this theory is not entirely imaginary
on the part of the writer is shown by the
fact, that, when upwelling ceases along the
shore washed by the California Current, the
subsurface currert rises to the surface and
is known as the Davidson Current for the
remainder of the year. But when upwelling
returns in the following season, the David-
son Current disappears and there is dis-
covered a subsurface current underneath
(Sverdrup, 1941). |

Therefore the writer would like to amend
the statement of Gunther, and others, that
the eastern boundary of the Humboldt Cur-
rent is inshore along the western coast of
South America between the northern and
southern boundaries of that current. It is
possible that it is inshore only until weak
upwelling allows the rise of the warm return
current to the surface.

The western boundary is far from defi-
nite. With reference again to Gunther’s
designation of the Peru Coastal, or more
commonly called the Humboldt Current,
this limit is the coastal strip of generally
northward flowing water over which up-
welling dominates. It must be noted that
during the winter of his examination, he
found it extended westward offshore ap-
proximately 30 to 130 miles from Chile, and
150 to 250. miles distant from Peru. Al-
though he allowed considerable variation,
due to the season and to warm water wedges
he suspected that the modifications might
exceed his appraisal (1936, pp. 109, 224).
Within these longitudes, the temperature
of the surface seawater dropped from 2°
to 5° C. along the same parallel from the
outermost stations to the innermost of those
taken by the William Scoresby. For it is
well known that the isotherms within the

128

Humboldt Current follow the coastline in-
stead of assuming their normal east-west
direction. The relative uniformity of the
coastal cooling is caused by the upwelling,
which is a distinctive characteristic of the
Humboldt Current.

Therefore, the ultimate boundary of the
current’s influence should be along the
points where the isotherms take their nor-
mal course. Since Gunther’s investigations
ceased before this change occurred, he
pointed out that the extreme westward
limits he assigned to the effects of the cur-
rent were only an estimate. The area of
marine, blue water affected by upwelled
water from the Humboldt Current but not
dominated thereby had a generally west-
ward movement. He termed this outer flow
the Peru Oceanic Current. He conjectured
that the surface seawater, where the tem-
perature was lowered by the upwelling
along shore, extended some 300 miles sea-
ward off the coast of Chile along the 40th
parallel, and from 3,600 to 4,000 miles off
the coast of Peru along the 15° parallel
(1936, p. 224). The above lowered tempera-
ture limits could be detected only with a
thermometer. The further westward exten-
sion of the Humboldt Current which the
writer has discovered in existing literature
appears in a note in Science (Beebe, 1926),
where Dr. William Beebe reports that a
captain on a United States vessel located
the effects as far west as the Marquesas
Islands, a distance of 3,711 miles from Cal-
lao. Perhaps it is reasonable to consider this
the maximum outside limit, since this ob-
servation occurred during the most unusual
year associated with the vagaries of the
Humboldt Current. The date was Septem-
ber, 1925.

When the Challenger data were obtained
it is assumed that conditions were not ab-
normal, but in the absence of records this
conjecture can be questioned. It was from
Challenger data that Thoulet (1928) reached
the conclusion that the waters east of
Easter Island were different in temperature,
salinity, and density from those to the west.
He attributed the difference to the effect of
the Humboldt Current upon the waters to
the east of the island; he called these waters
the Easter Island Sea.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

The stations of the Challenger were too
few to enable Thoulet in 1928 to define
boundaries of the Easter Island Sea other
than to state that the sea was east of Easter
Island. Since this island is approximately
2,000 miles westward from the South
American coast in about. 27° south latitude,
Thoulet’s finding fits roughly into Gunther’s
huge wedge-shaped area estimated to be
affected by the Humboldt Current’s up-
welled waters. Indeed, Thoulet adds this
one specific finding to supplement Gunther’s
observations and deductions.

The discovery made by Byrd’s Expedi-
tion that Easter Island is situated upon the
extensive Easter Island Ridge, which divides
the South*Pacific, appears significant to the
writer because it forms the submarine de-
marcation between the East and West
Pacific. The great submarine rise stretches
from Ross Sea in the Antarctic (Roos,
1937), to the vicinity of the Gulf of Cali-
fornia before it becomes indistinguishable
from the continental shelf on the topo-
graphic map. Perhaps this ridge may be
vitally related to the boundary of Easter
Island Sea and to the ultimate westward ef-
fects of the Humboldt Current, for topog-
raphy has a marked influence on current
flow.

The northern boundary of the Humboldt
Current, proper, has a seasonal variation
that has not been precisely determined.
Rainfall appears to be the most successful
gage of the boundary’s vacillation, for the
dominance of the Humboldt Current is
synonymous with aridity. According to
rainfall records along the Peruvian coast
(Eguiguren, 1894), the usual shift extends
from Santa Elena Peninsula, which is the
northern limit of the Gulf of Guayaquil,
south to Punta Aguja. Farther west the
Galapagos Islands appear to mark the nor-
mal north-south march of annual rainfall,
but the data here have been secured from
occasional expeditions and not from regular
observations (Stewart, 1911).

Although most of the subtropical surface
water is deflected westward of the Tropical
Convergence, at this northern boundary of
the Humboldt Current, there is evidence
that some part, at least, continues as a sur-
face current northward of that convergence.

May 15, 1943

Near the coast, according to Murphy (1939,
p. 27), none of the Humboldt Current sur-
face water reaches beyond the equator.
Barlow (1938) is confident it flows at the
surface northward of the Humboldt Current
proper to the Gulf of Panama. Gunther
(pp. 158-59) noted that a portion of the
Humboldt Current surface water had sunk
below the tropical water at the Tropical
Convergence, and that it was still flowing
north as a subsurface current at the north-
ern extension of his survey. Fleming (1939,
p. 173) found in the Gulf of Panama during
the winter upwelling that the water has the
character of the surface water off Peru. In
other words, the extreme northern boundary
of the Humboldt Current is yet to be de-
termined.

Gunther (1936, pp. 162, 226—227) located
the southern boundary during his survey on
the 32nd parallel; nevertheless, he admits
the possibility of an extension to the 40th
parallel, in deference to Schott’s chart, and
he concedes a possibility of the 41st parallel
as an extreme southern limit. But since
Gunther actually observed the southern
- winter limit to be 32° south latitude, the
writer prefers to retain that cold season
border until further research, carried out in
the same thorough manner as that of the
William Scoresby, demonstrates the need of
correction. In summer, there has been no de-
termination comparable to the above. A
characteristic feature of the Humboldt Cur-
rent is the normal freedom from storms. For
this reason, over a century ago Humboldt
advised the use of this region for shipping,
especially during such turbulent periods
elsewhere (1829, vol. 6, p. 232). In January,
1939, Goodspeed’s party observed that the
storm-free character of the Humboldt Cur-
rent protected their ship only part of the
way between Valparaiso and Concepcion
(Goodspeed, 1941). Thus, in the summer of
1939, the southern boundary of the Hum-
boldt Current was betweén 32° and 37°
south latitude. Yet it must be noted that
1939 was an unusual year of warm-water
invasions.

There are other observations, but none,
in the knowledge and opinion of the writer,
that provide data with greater probability

MEARS: BOUNDARIES OF THE HUMBOLDT CURRENT

129

of accuracy. It has seemed wise to cite these
specific fragments in order to show the
meagre and inconclusive character of the
information regarding boundaries of the
Humboldt Current. Actually, only the
lower boundary has been precisely fixed,
and that for but one season of an abnormal
year. Until the usual boundaries are de-
fined with greater precision, the exceptional
ones, such as those of 1925 when warm
water reached as far south as central Chile,
can be viewed with scant profit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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currents of the South Pacific Ocean. Mar-
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Breese, Wiiuiam. A note on the Humboldt
Current and the Sargasso Sea. Science 63:
91-92. 1926.

Deacon, G. E. R. The hydrogen of the South-
ern Ocean. Discovery Reports 15: 1-24.
1937.

EGUIGUREN, Victor. Las Iuvas en Piura.
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FLEMING, R. H. A contribution to the oceanog-
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Proce, 6th Pacific Scai- Congr. 3: 16/—175.
1939.

GoopsPEED, T.H. Plant hunters in the Andes.
New York and Toronto, 1941.

GuNTHER, E. R. A report on oceanographical
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Discovery Reports 12: 107-276. 1936.

HuMBOoLDT; ALEXANDER VON. Personal nar-
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the New Continent during the years 1799-
1804, by Alexander de Humboldt and Aimé
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bia and Ecuador. Geogr. Rev. 29: 1-83.
1939.

Roos, 8. E. Some geographical results of the
second Byrd Antarctic Expedition, 1933-
1935. The submarine topography of the Ross
Sea and adjacent waters. Geogr. Rev. 27:
574-583. 1937.

ScuoTT, GERHARD. Geographie des indischen
und stillen Ozeans im Auftrage der deutschen
Seewarte verfasst. Hamburg, 1935.

ScuweicGcer, E. H. Las trregularidades de la
corriente de Humboldt en los anos 1925 a
1941; una tentatiwa de su explicacion.
Bol. Compafiia Admin. Guano 18 (1): 27-
42. 1942.

Stewart, ALBAN. Expedition of the California
Academy of Sciences to the Galapagos [s-
lands, 1905-06. Proc. California Acad.
Sci., ser. 4, 1: 7-288. 1911.

SveRDRuUP, H. U. An analysts of the ocean cur-

130

rents of the American west coast between
40° N. and 40° 8. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr.
Contrib. 130. 1941.

Oceanography for meteorologists.

2 New
York, 1942.

BOTAN Y.—Homonyms among names of trees and fossil plants.
(Communicated by WiLu1AM A. Dayton.)

LitTez, Jr., U.S. Forest Service.

The same names have sometimes been
given independently both to species of living
trees of the United States and to different
species of fossil plants, but the number of
homonyms of this type not previously cor-
rected is relatively small. In the course of
the preparation of a revised Check list of
the native and naturalized trees of the United
States, the accepted names have been
checked against homonyms among fossil
plants. Fortunately, only three changes in
nomenclature have been necessary for the
above publication, but additional names of
tree species distinguished by some authors,
as well as some names of fossils, are affected.
It seems desirable to call attention to these
homonyms among recent and fossil plants
and to suggest that taxonomists working
with living plants, and paleobotanists
studying fossils, carefully compare their
proposed new names before publication
with the indexes of both groups, in order to
avoid preoccupied names.

The International Rules of Botanical
Nomenclature (ed. 3. 1935) apply to recent
and fossil plants alike (art. 9), though a few
special rules have been adopted for fossil
plants. Nomenclature of fossil plants begins
with the year 1820 (art. 20). A Latin diag-
nosis is not required for names of new groups
of fossil plants (art. 38), but after January
1, 1912, names of new groups of fossil plants
must be accompanied by illustrations (which
serve as substitutes for duplicate specimens)
in addition to the descriptions, or by refer-
ences to earlier illustrations (art. 39). The
rule about homonyms was changed in 1930
to reject a later homonym even if the earlier
homonym is a synonym and not in use (arts.
60 (8) and 61). As a result of the change,
some homonyms previously correctly used

1 Received February 4, 1948.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

THOULET, J. Le courant de Humboldt et la mer
de l’fle de Paques. Ann. Inst. Océanogr.,
MEOW SCh..15) ase. 2)is ta OSs

Vatuaux, C. The Peru or Humboldt Current.
Scientia 65-66: 77-82. 1939.

ELBERT L.

suddenly became invalid. Also, since specific
epithets long abandoned as synonyms can
never be used again in the same genus,
there is now a greater possibility of making
unintentional homonyms in large genera of
woody plants having both living and ex-
tinct species.

Names of recent plants are well indexed
in standard references, such as Index
Kewensis and its supplements and the Gray
Herbarium card-index. Fossil plants, how-
ever, are not so thoroughly cataloged. A de-
tailed catalog of names of fossil plants of the
world, Fossilium catalogus II: Plantae, edited
by Jongmans? is in progress. Most of the 24
parts issued since the work was begun in
1913 are about extinct groups. The following
parts, however, cover seven important fami-
lies of recent woody plants and should be
consulted by taxonomists making new
names in these groups: Pars 6, Juglandaceae
(1915); pars 8, Betulaceae (1916); pars 10,
Ulmaceae (1922); pars 14, Sapindaceae
(1928); pars 20, Anacardiaceae (1935) ; pars
23, Cornaceae (1938); and pars 24, Vitaceae
(1939). Additional parts of interest also to
students of recent plants are: Pars 13,
Muscineae (1927); pars 17, Dicotyledones
(ligna), or fossil wood (1931); and pars 19,
Charophyta (1933).

In 1919 Knowlton’ published a catalog of
the Mesozoic and Cenozoic plants of North
America known at that time, which should
be consulted by taxonomists making new
names in genera such as woody plants also
represented as fossils. All affected fossil
names that were known to be later homo-
nyms of recent species were corrected by

2 Jonemans, W., ed., Fossilium Catalogus II:
Plantae, pts. 1-24. ’s-Gravenhage, 1913-1939.

3 KNOWLTON, F. H., A catalogue of the Mesozotc
and Cenozoic plants of North America. U.S. Geol. -
Surv. Bull. 696, 815 pp. 1919.

May 15, 1943

Knowlton and Cockerell in Knowlton’s
catalog (p. 11). This catalog, however, did
not cover fossils outside North America,
names published after 1919, or Paleozoic
fossils, though Paleozoic fossils are in ex-
tinct genera. The United States Geological
Survey, Washington, D. C., has an unpub-
lished card catalog of names of fossil plants
throughout the Plant Kingdom up to the
year 1933, when compilation was discon-
tinued. This valuable and detailed card
catalog is located in the division of paleon-
tology, United States National Museum.
The homonyms mentioned here are among
those detected when the accepted names of
native and naturalized trees of the United
States were checked against names of fossils
in the paleobotanical card catalog. Most
of these homonyms concern European fos-
sils, especially names published before Index
Kewensis, and a few names appearing since
Knowlton’s catalog.

The three changes in nomenclature from
that of Sudworth’s check list required be-
cause the names were used previously for
fossils are summarized below.

Ilex amelanchier MEAS Cunt:
SERVICEBERRY HoLLy

Prinos dubius G. Don, Gen. Syst. Gard. Bot.
2220. 1832.

Ilex amelanchier M. A. Curt. ex Chapm.,
Hi south, WS: 270. 1860.

Llez dubia (G. Don) B.S. P., Prelim. Cat.
Anth. Pter. New York 11. 1888. Not Ilex
dubia Weber, Palaeontographica 2: 203,
pl. 22, fig. 9. 1851 (fossil, Oligocene,
Prussia).

Fernald (Rhodora 41: 424-429, pl. 559.
1939) showed by examining the type that
Ilex dubia (G. Don). B. 8. P. is the same as
Ilex amelanchier M. A. Curt. and so took
up the former name. However, as Ilex dubia
(G. Don) B.S. P. is a later homonym of a
fossil, the name Ilex amelanchier M. A.
Curt. should be restored. This shrubby
species of the Coastal Plain from New
Jersey to Georgia and Louisiana becomes a
small tree according to Small (Man. South-
east. Fl. 1502. 1933) and will be added to
the check list.

LITTLE: HOMONYMS AMONG TREES AND FOSSIL PLANTS

131

xX Quercus burnetensis Little Burner Oak

Quercus macrocarpa Michx. XQuercus virgi-
niana Mill.

X Quercus coloradensis Ashe, Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 49: 268. 1922. Not Quercus
coloradensis Lesq., Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.
16: 46. 1888 (fossil, Eocene, Colorado).

X Quercus burnetensis Little, Journ. Wash-
ington Acad. Sci. 33: 9. 1943.

xX Quercus filialis Little VARILEAF Oak

Quercus phellos L. Xx Quercus velutina Lam.

x Quercus inaequalis Palmer & Steyermark,
Missouri Bot. Gard. Ann. 22: 521. 1935.
Not Quercus inaequalis Watelet, Descr. PI.
Foss. Bass. Paris 136, pl. 35, fig. 8. 1866
(fossil, Eocene, France).

xX Quercus filialis Little, Journ. Washington
Acad. Sci. 33: 10. 1948.

The two earlier fossil homonyms of Salzx
lancifolia indicated below do not invalidate
the name when transferred to a variety. The
variety stands as a new name, rather than
a new combination (art. 16), and Andersson
is not cited as original author. The same
epithet may be used as a species and variety
(art. 29).

Salix lasiandra Benth. var. lancifolia Bebb
Pactric Gray WILLOW

Salix lancifolia Anderss., Svenska Vet.-Akad.
Handl. 6: 34, pl. 2, fig. 23. 1867. Not Salix
lancifolia A. Braun, Neues Jahrb. Mineral.
Geogn. Geol. Petref. 1845: 170. 1845
(fossil, Miocene, Switzerland); A. Braun
ex Unger, Gen. Sp. Foss. Pl. 419. 1850. Not
Salix lancifolia Ludw., Palaeontographica
5: 157, pl. 35, fig. 9. 1858 (fossil, Miocene,
Hesse).

Saliz lastandra Benth. var. lancifolia Bebb in
S. Wats., Bot. California 2: 84. 1879.

Names for several tree species recognized
by some authors but not accepted in the
check list are invalid as later homonyms of
fossils. These include a recently described
species of Abzes, an older species of Acer, a
new species of Quercus, and three hybrids of
Quercus. Doubtless additional homonyms
occur among the names of exotic and culti-

132

vated trees, which have not been checked.
Juglans sieboldiana will serve as an example.

Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. var. phanerolepis
Fern. BRACTED BAaLsAM FIR

Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. var. phanerolepis
Fern., Rhodora 11: 203. 1909.

Abies intermedia Fulling, Journ. Southern
Appalachian Bot. Club 1: 98, fig. 1. 1936.
Not Abies intermedia Saporta, Compt.
Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris 94: 1021. 1882
(fossil, Pliocene, France).

Acer rubrum L. REp MAPLE

Accmimonin Ge opel Wao. toa:

Acer stenocarpum Britton in Britton and
Shafer, North American Trees 647, fig.
598. 1908. Not Acer stenocarpum Etting-
hausen, Denkschr. Bayer. Akad. Wiss.
Minchen 50: 20, pl. 31, figs. 10-12. 1885
(fossil, Miocene, Carniola).

Further study is needed to determine
whether Quercus grandidentata Ewan (Bull.
Torrey Bot. Club. 64: 512. 1937) is distinct.
It was described from a few collections at
Monrovia, Los Angeles County, Calif. ; it is
closely related to Quercus engelmanni
Greene; and it may be a hybrid between
Quercus dumosa Nutt. and Quercus engel-
mannt Greene. Also, the name is a homonym
of Quercus grandidentata Unger (Gen. Spec.
Pl. Foss. 401. 1850; fossil, Miocene, Galicia).

Another new species, Quercus robusta
C. H. Muller (Torreya 34: 119. 1934),
known only from Oak Canyon, Chisos
Mountains, Tex., is not affected because the
earlier homonym, Quercus robusta Schulze
(Zeitschr. fiir Naturw. 60: 457. 1887; fossil,
Upper Cretaceous, Baden), upon examina-
tion was found to be a nomen nudum (arts.
44,45).

The name X Quercus dubia Ashe (Journ.
Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 11: 93. 1894)
should be abandoned as a name of uncertain
identity as to its supposed parents and as a
later homonym. Earlier homonyms are
Quercus dubia Alm. in L. (Pl. Surinam. 15.
1775) and the fossil Quercus dubia Newberry
(Ann. New York Lye. Nat. Hist. 9: 31.
1868; nomen nudum; fossil, Miocene, Mon-
tana); Quercus dubia Newberry [Proc. U.S.
Nat. Mus. 5: 506. 1883 (fossil; Miocene,
Montana)]. The name of the fossil species

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

was changed to Quercus asymmetrica Trel.
(Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci. 20: 28, pl. 12, fig. 10.
1924).

X Quercus ludoviciana Sarg. St. LANDRY Oak

xX Quercus ludoviciana Sarg., Trees and
Shrubs 2: 223. 1913.

xX Quercus subfalcata Trel., Proc. Amer. Phil.
Soc. 56: 52. 1917. Not Quercus subfalcata
Goppert, Tert. Fl. Insel Java 114. 1854.
(nomen nudum; fossil, Miocene, Bohemia).
Not Quercus subfalcata Friedrich, Geol.
Specialk. Preuss. Abh. 4 (3): 257, pl. 9, figs.
4, 5. 1883 (fossil, Oligocene, Saxony).

xX Quercus ludoviciana var. subfalcata (Trel.)
Rehd., Journ. Arnold Arb. 7: 240. 1926.

X Quercus ludoviciana Sarg. is the hybrid
between Quercus falcata var. pagodaefolia
Elliott and Quercus phellos L. X Quercus
subfalcata Trel. is the hybrid between
Quercus falcata Michx. and Quercus phellos
L., and is a later homonym of a fossil.
Rehder, under article 34, reduced the latter
hybrid to a variety, and it seems simpler to
group all the hybrids between two species,
including hybrids of their varieties, all
under the same name.

The relationships of X Quercus venulosa
Ashe (Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soe.
41: 268. 1926), described from Okaloosa
County, Fla., are uncertain. Its supposed
parents were Quercus cinerea Michx. and
Quercus caput-rivult Ashe, the latter original-
ly described as a doubtful hybrid and later
reduced by its author to Quercus arkansana
caput-rivuli (Ashe) Ashe. The earlier homo-
nym is Quercus venulosa (Kichwald) Eich-
wald (Lethaea Rossica 2 (1): 63, pl. 3, fig.
11. 1865; fossil, Russia), originally described
as Credneria venulosa EKichwald (1853).

Juglans ailantifolia Carr. SreBsotp WALNUT

Juglans sieboldiana Maxim., Bull. Acad.
Imper. Pétersb., sér. 3, 18: 60. 1873. Not
Juglans sieboldiana Géppert, Tert. Fl. In-
sel Java 154. 1854; nomen nudum. Not Jug-
lans sieboldiana Géppert, Tert. Fl. Schos-
snitz Schles. 36, pl. 25, fig. 2. 1855 (fossil,
Miocene, Silesia).

Jugians ailantifolia Carr., Rev. Hort. [Paris]
50: 414, fig. 85-86. 1878.

It is unfortunate that the name Juglans
steboldiana Maxim., long in use for a species

May 15, 1943

from Japan cultivated in the United States,
must be rejected because the name was
given 18 years earlier to a fossil from Europe.
According to Nagel (Foss. Cat. II: Plantae,
pt. 6: 52.1915), Juglans sieboldiana Géppert
isa synonym of J. acuminata A. Br. A fossil
variety of the Japanese species was named
Juglans sieboldiana Maxim. fossilis Nath.
(Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 20 (2): 37,
pl. I, figs. 13-17, 18(?). 1883).

EXAMPLES OF DUPLICATE NAMES

An interesting example of a genus that
was named among fossils before it was dis-
tinguished among living trees is Sequoza
Endl. (Syn. Conif. 197. 1847). Though a
species of living trees was named earlier
Taxodium sempervirens Lamb. (Descr.
Genus Pinus 2: [24]. 1824), the genus was
based upon three species of fossil cones and
was published with illustrations as Stezn-
hauera Presl in Sternberg (Versuch Geogn.
—Bot. Darst. Fl. Vorwelt. 202 illus. 1838).
The more familiar name Sequoza Endl. has
been retained by making it a nomen con-
servandum, while the older synonym, Stein-
hauera Presl, is a nomen rejiciendum (art.
21).

Various illustrations of homonyms that
have been replaced could be cited. For
example, Juglans californica S. Wats. (Proc.
Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 10: 349. 1875) ap-
peared only three years before the fossil
species, Juglans californica Lesq. (Mem.
Mus. Comp. Zool. 6 (2): 34, pl. 9, fig. 14;
pl. 10, fig. 23. 1878; Miocene, California).
The latter was changed to Juglans leonis

Cock. (Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, 26: 543.

1908). The Miocene fossil from Alaska,
Betula alaskana Lesq. (Proc. U. 8S. Nat.
Mus. 5: 446, pl. 6, fig. 14. 1883) had priority
over Betula alaskana Sarg. (Bot. Gaz. 31:
236. 1901). When the earlier use of the name
was called to his attention, Sargent re-
named the living species Betula neoalaskana
Sarg. (Journ. Arnold Arb. 3: 206. 1922).
However, this species has since been re-
duced to a variety, Betula papyrifera Marsh.
var. neodlaskana (Sarg.) Raup (Contrib.
Arnold Arb. 6: 152. 1934).

Among the more recent cases that have
not been corrected is the shrubby species
Sorbus alaskana G. N. Jones (Journ. Arnold

"LITTLE: HOMONYMS AMONG TREES AND FOSSIL PLANTS

133

Arb. 20: 24, pl. 226. 1939), a later homonym
of the Upper Cretaceous fossil, Sorbus
alaskana Hollick (U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof.
Pap. 159: 97, pl. 74, fig. 1. 1930).

FOSSILS WITH NAMES PREOCCUPIED BY
RECENT TREES

The names of several species of fossils are
later homonyms of names in use for recent
trees of the United States. The fossils are
mostly old European species that may no
longer be recognized. However, if they are
valid and distinct species still in the same
genera and if they have not already been
changed, they should be given new names
by specialists familiar with them. Some of
these preoccupied names of fossils that may
not have been corrected are given below:

Magnolia macrophylla Vukotinoviéa, Jugo-
slav. Akad. Zagreb Rad 13: 202. 1870 (fossil,
Miocene, Croatia). Not Magnolia macrophylla
Michx., Fl. Bor.-Amer. 1: 327. 1803.

Pinus resinosa Ludwig, Palaeontographica
5: 87, pl. 18, figs. 3-4. 1857 (fossil, Miocene,
Hesse). Not Pinus resinosa Ait., Hort. Kew. 3:
B60. 1789:

Pinus rigida (G6ppert and _ Berendt)
Schimper, Traité Paléont. Végét. 2: 291. 1870
(fossil, Miocene, Prussia; originally in genus
Pinites). In making this combination, Schimper
remarked that there already existed a Pinus
rigida Mill. Not Pinus rigida Mill., Gard. Dict.
ed. 8, Pinus No. 10. 1768.

Populus tremuloides Massalongo, Piante
Foss. Terz. Vicentino 146. 1851 (fossil, Miocene,
Italy). Populus tremuloides Wessel in Wessel
and Weber, Palaeontographica 4: pl. 24, fig. 2.
1855 (nomen nudum; fossil, Miocene, Prussia).
Not Populus tremuloides Michx., Fl. Bor.-
Amer. 2: 2438. 18038.

Quercus reticulata (EKichwald) FEichwald,
Lethaea Rossica 2 (1): 62, pl. 3, fig. 16. 1865
(fossil, Cretaceous, Russia; originally Cred-
neria reticulata Kichwald (1853) ). Not Quercus
reticulata Humb. and Bonpl., Pl. Aequin. 2: 20,
pl. 86. 1809.

Rhus microphylla Heer, Svenska Vet.-Akad.
Ofv. Forh. 28: 1184. 1871 (nomen nudum);
Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 12: 117, pl. 32, fig.
18. 1874 (fossil, Cretaceous, Greenland). Not
Rhus microphylla Engelm. ex A. Gray, Smith-
sonian Contr. Knowl. 3 (5) (Pl. Wright. 1): 31.
1852.

134

The following fossil homonym has been
reduced to synonymy:

Quercus obtusa Knowlton, U. S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Pap. 140: 38, pl. 22, fig. 8. 1926. (fossil,
Miocene, Washington). Made a synonym of
Quercus stmulata Knowlton by Brown (U. S.
Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 186-J: 173. 1937). Not
Quercus obtusa (Willd.) Ashe, Torreya 18: 72.
1918.

Though no check was made of homonyms
among fossils and synonyms of recent trees
of the United States, as these names would
not affect the nomenclature of the check
list or cause any confusion, a few later
homonyms of this type were found among
the fossils. An example is Abzes mucronata
(G6ppert and Menge) Géppert (Schles.
Ges. Vaterl. Kult. Jahresb. 48 (1870): 55.
1871; originally described in the genus
Abietites). Not Abzes mucronata Raf. (Atl.
Journ. 120. 1832), the name upon which
was based Pseudotsuga mucronata (Raf.)
Sudw., a synonym of Pseudotsuga tazifolia
(Poir.) Britton.

SIMILAR BUT NOT IDENTICAL NAMES

Some names of fossils and recent plants
which are similar but fortunately differ
slightly in spelling may be retained without
confusion as distinct names (art. 70),
though possibly a few might be considered
orthographic variants. A partial list of these
similar names follows.

FOSSIL PLANTS
Acer grosse-dentatum
Heer (1859)

RECENT PLANTS
Acer grandidentatum
Nutt. ex. Torr. and
Gray (1838)
Crataegus holmesiana
Ashe (1900)

Crataegus holmesit
Lesq. (1887)

Fraxinus oregonensis Fraxinus oregona
Knowlton and Cock- Nutt. (1849)
erell (1919)

Juglans quadrangula X Juglans quadrangu-

Ludwig (1857) lata (Carr.) Rehd.

(1900)

Pinus quadrifoliata Pinus quadrifolia Parl.
Peola (1900) ex Sudw. (1897)
Quercus neomexicana Quercus novomexicana
Knowlton (1918) CA DC) a Raydib:

(1901)

Quercus treleasit Berry
(1928)

Quercus treleaseana A.
Camus (1932)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

GENERIC HOMONYMS

Apparently no generic names of living
trees of the United States are later homo-
nyms of fossil genera. However, an unim-
portant example of a generic name used in-
dependently in living and fossil plants is
Batodendron Nutt. (Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.,
ser. 2, 8: 261. 1843), a segregate of Vac-
convum L., generally not used by conserva-
tive workers. The name Batodendron Lands-
borough (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 13: 290.
1844) was given a year later to a Paleozoic
fossil from Scotland inadequately described
without specific name. An Upper Devonian
fossil from Siberia was named Batodendron
sp. Chachloff (1921).

If a detailed check of extinct genera were
made with indexes of generic names of
living plants, it is likely that a few homo-
nyms would be found. Of course, if the older
name is rejected as a synonym and is no
longer in use, the later homonym can be
retained without confusion merely by mak-
ing it a nomen conservandum (art. 21).

An example of a generic name in use in
both groups is Berrya. Berria Roxb. (PI.
Corom. 3: 60, pl. 264. 1819; usually spelled
Berrya, an orthographic variant by DC.,
Prodr. 1. 517. 1824) is a genus of one or two
species of Tiliaceae. Berrya Knowlton (U.S.
Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 155: 133, pl. 41, fig.
4—5. 1930), a fossil genus of uncertain posi-
tion with one species, is a later homonym.
This has been synonymized with Cerczdi-
phyllum by Brown (Journ. Pal. 13: 492.
1939).

AVOIDANCE OF HOMONYMS

A few suggestions for avoiding the crea-
tion of additional, unnecessary homonyms
among recent and fossil plants may be
drawn from the examples given. Of course,
persons proposing new specific names in
genera having both living and extinct
species, especially large genera of woody
plants such as Quercus, should check their
tentative names in the best available in-
dexes and catalogs of both groups. Ad-
ditional published catalogs or indexes of
fossil plants are urgently needed by taxono-
mists of living plants as well as by paleo-

‘May 15, 1943

botanists. Schopf* has recently called at-
tention to the desirability of continued com-
pilation and publication of additions to the
existing catalogs of American fossil plants.

Certain epithets are much more likely to
be used independently for fossil and recent
plants than others. Names derived from
large geographical areas, such as Alaska and
the States, are often repeated, but many fos-
sils are named from a small locality where
the types were collected or from the geo-
logical formation without risk of duplica-
tion. Epithets of obvious descriptive char-
acters among certain species within a large
genus containing both living and extinct
species have a relatively high probability of
being homonyms. Names suggesting re-
semblance to another species or indicating
intermediate or uncertain characters may
have been used before for fossils also.

As long as the number of homonyms
among recent and fossil plants remains

4 Scuorr, James M., American Committee on
Paleobotanical Nomenclature. Chronica Bot. 7:
226-227. 1942.

BOTAN Y.—New grasses from the Philippines and South India.'
Santos, Botanical Gardens, University of Michigan.

AGNES CHASE.)

During the progress of a study on the
Genera of Philippine grasses, Asiatic speci-
mens of Garnotia, Isachne, and Sacciolepis
were found in the United States National
Herbarium that were either without or with
doubtful determinations. Among them is the
material hitherto generally referred to
Garnotia stricta Brongn.? At the suggestion
of Mrs. Agnes Chase, studies were under-
taken on the distinguishing characters of
the true Garnotia stricta Brongn., and a com-
parison was made with the material formerly
referred to this species. The result of this
investigation led to the examination of the
species of Garnotia and the description of a

1 Received February 238, 1943. Papers from the
Department of Botany of the University of Michi-
gan, no. 820. Read before the 48th meeting of the
Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and Letters
held at the Migr a Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Mich., March 26-27,

2Tn DUPERREY, A ie sie Voyage autour du
monde 27: 133-134, pl. 21. 1830.

SANTOS: NEW GRASSES FROM PHILIPPINES AND SOUTH INDIA

135

rather small, the problem is not serious, and
possibilities of confusion at present are
sight. If the number of homonyms among
the two groups should ever be greatly in-
creased’ at some future date when many
more species of fossils are known, possibly
the same epithets could be permitted for
both recent and fossil species. Most special-
ists do not work with both groups anyway.
The greatest sources for error then would be
in recent species found also as fossils in the
geologically youngest deposits, such as
Pleistocene. Identical names for plants and
animals are permitted (art. 6), though the
names repeated are mostly genera. Another
possible solution would be to assign slightly
different generic names to fossils that are
closely related to living genera. Then the
same specific epithets could be repeated in
both. To some extent this practice has been
followed by the use of suffixes, such as -ztes,
and -orylon, and -phyllum in the examples
Pinites from Pinus, Araucarioxylon from
Araucaria, and Sapindophyllum from Sapin-
dus.

JOSE VERA
(Communicated by

new species. The writer is greatly indebted
to Mrs. Chase, for her technical assistance
in the preparation of this paper, and to Dr.
Elzada U. Clover, for going over the manu-
script.

Garnotia mindanaensis Santos, sp. nov.

Perennis, 45-55 cm alta; culmi caespitosi,
erecti, simplices, nodiis pubescentibus; vaginae
glabrae, collari pubescenti et venis prominenti-
bus; ligulae 0.2 mm longae, glabrae; laminae
lineari-lanceolatae, planae, 8-25 cm longae, 4-6
mm latae; paniculae 10-18 cm longae, angustae
interruptae; spiculae 4—4.5 mm longae, 0.5—0.6
mm latae, anguste lanceolatae, e dorso com-
pressae; glumae subaequales, breviter aristatae,
3-nerves, scabrae; lemma maturum glumas
aequans, lanceolatum, glabrum, 3-nerve; arista
lemmate 1-2.5 plo longior; palea anguste
lanceolata, membranacea, marginibus supra
auriculas molliter pubescentibus; lodiculae 2,
minutae, spatulatae, glabrae.

136

Plants perennial, 45-55 cm tall; culms simple,
tufted, erect or slightly geniculate toward the
base, the nodes pubescent; sheaths glabrous,
the collar pubescent, the veins prominent;
ligules about 0.2 mm long, glabrous, the margin
erose; blades linear-lanceolate, flat, 8-25 cm
long, 4-6 mm wide, narrowed at the base,
glabrous on both surfaces except for a few hairs
toward the tip and the pubescence, sometimes
with long hairs intermixed, above the ligule, the
margins antrorsely scabrous; panicles 10-18 em
long, narrow, interrupted, the branches loosely
appressed; spikelets about 4-4.5 mm long,
(.5-0.6 mm wide, narrowly lanceolate, dorsally
compressed, with short hairs at the base, in
pairs, the members of each pair with short un-
equal pedicels; glumes subequal, both 3-nerved,
the nerves scabrous, the middle one exerted into
a short awn, the internerves glabrous; lemma at
maturity equaling the glumes, lanceolate,
glabrous, 3-nerved, the acute tip extending into
an awn about 1—2.5 times as long as the lemma;
palea narrowly lanceolate, membranaceous, en-
closing a perfect flower, keeled on the back
along the two lateral nerves, the margins auri-
cled toward the base, softly pubescent from
above the auricles to the tip; lodicules two,
minute, spatulate, glabrous.

The type is in the herbarium of the Uni-
versity of Michigan, duplicate type in the U. S.
National Herbarium, collected by H. H. Bart-
lett, no. 17235, December 6, 1940, grassland
at Del Monte, Bukidnon, Mindanao Island,
Philippines.

This species shows some resemblance to
Garnotia stricta Brongn., the type species of the
genus, and different collections have been re-
ferred to it. In view of this fact, a thorough
study was made of the characteristics of the
real Garnotia stricta Brongn. as proposed in
1830. Since the type specimen, which came
from ‘Tle de Taiti,”’ is not available, Brongni-
art’s original description and the accompany-
ing illustration showing the awnless lemma (pl.
21) are the only authentic bases for determining
the identity of this species. The species here
proposed differs from Garnotia stricta Brongn.
in the absence of a rhizome, in the glabrous
ligule, short-awned second glume, long-awned
lemma, soft pubescence of the margin of the
palea from above the auricles to the tip, and in
the glabrous lodicules.

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VOL. 33, NO. 5

Sacciolepis glabra Santos, sp. nov.

Annua, 40-55 cm alta; culmi graciles, erecti
vel decumbentes, nodiis inferioribus radicantes;
vaginae glabrae; ligulae membranaceae, 0.5
mm longae, marginibus pilosis; laminae lineares
5-12 cm longae, 3-5 mm latae, supra sparse
papilloso-pilosae, marginibus scaberulis; pani-
culae maturae contractae, spiciformes, cylindri-
cae, ca 2-5 cm longae, 7 mm latae; spiculae 3-4
mm longae, glabrae, a latere compressae, ob-
longo-lanceolatae; gluma prima quam spicula
ca 3 plo brevior, subacuta, 3—5-nervis, margini-
bus hyalinis; gluma secunda et lemma vacuum
aequalia, 11-nervia, illa gibbosa hoe basi sac-
catum; palea sterilis reducta; lemma fertile
quam spicula ca 2 plo brevius, lanceolato-
ellipticum; palea lemma aequans, utraque ob-
scure nervosa; granum Oblongo-ellipticum, sub-
fuscum.

Plants annual, 40—55 cm tall; culms glabrous,
slender, branched, erect to decumbent, rooting
at the lower nodes; sheaths glabrous, slightly
compressed; ligules membranous, 0.5 mm long,
the margin pilose; blades linear, the tips acute,
5-12 cm long, 3-5 mm wide, the upper ones
much longer than the lower, the upper surface
sparsely papillose-pilose, the margins scaberu-
lous; mature panicles contracted, spikelike,
cylindric, about 2.5 cm long, 7 mm wide; spike-
lets 3-4 mm long, glabrous, crowded, solitary
to subfascicled, laterally compressed, oblong-
lanceolate in dorsal view; first glume about 4 as
long as the spikelet, subacute, 3- to 5-nerved,
the margin hyaline; second glume and empty
lemma equal, both l1l-nerved, the glume
strongly gibbose below, the lemma more or
less straight for the greater part of its length
except for the saccate base; sterile palea re-
duced; fertile lemma about one-half as long as
the spikelet, lanceolate-elliptic, pale, shining,
the tip acute; palea as long as the lemma, both
obscurely nerved, chartaceous-indurate; grain
light brown, oblong-elliptic.

The type is in the herbarium of the Uni-
versity of Michigan, duplicate type in the U. S.
National Herbarium, collected by L. E. Ebalo,
no. 174, October 26-30, 1939, at Wawan and
Dimaraga Mountains, Mansalay, Island of
Mindoro, Philippines.

This species shows some relation to two
Asiatic grasses, Sacciolepis contracta (Wight &

May 15, 1948 SANTOS: NEW GRASSES FROM PHILIPPINES AND SOUTH INDIA 137

Fig. 1.—Garnotia mindanaensis: Habit sketch of the flowering plant, X 3. a, Side view of the spikelet;
b, first glume; c, second glume; d, fertile lemma; e, palea with the bisexual flower. a—e, X10. (Type.)

VOL. 33, NO. 5

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

138

, X#. a and b, Side and dorsal views
d, X10. (Type.)

of the spikelet, respectively; c, fertile lemma; d, grain. a—

Fig. 2.—Sacciolepis glabra: Habit sketch of the flowering plant

May 15, 1943 SANTOS: NEW GRASSES FROM PHILIPPINES AND SOUTH INDIA 139

Fig. 3.—Isachne lutaria: Habit sketch of the flowering plant, <4. a and b, Side and dorsal views of
the spikelet, respectively; c, side view of the lower and upper lemmas; d, ventral view of the upper
cag é, palea of the upper lemma enclosing the pistil, filaments, and lodicules; f, grain. a—f, X10.

ype.

140

Arn.) Hitche.* and S. indica (L.) Chase. It
differs from both in having much larger, gla-
brous spikelets; from S. contracta in its annual
character, the decumbent culms, rooting at the
lower nodes, the lax, sparsely pubescent blades,
and shorter panicles; and from S. indica in its
much taller habit and in the panicles, which
are more than twice as long.

Isachne lutaria Santos, sp. nov.

Annua, ca. 30 em alta; culmi graciles, adscen-
dentes, ramosi, nodiis pubescentibus vel pilosis,
eis inferioribus radicantibus; vaginae glabrae
vel marginibus ciliatae; ligulae ciliatae pilis
longis albidis; laminae lanceolatae, 2-4 cm
longae, 8-5 mm-latae, venis et marginibus
scaberulis; paniculae ovatae, 3-5 cm longae,
2.5-4 em latae, ramis flexuosis non glandulosis;
spiculae elliptico-oblongae, 1.5-1.7 mm longae,
1-1.2 mm latae; glumae subaequales spiculam
subaequantes, 9-nerves, late obtusae, sparse
hispidae; lemma floris masculi spiculam sub-
aequans, membranaceum, obscure 5-nerve;
lemma fertile quam spicula clare brevius, char-
taceum, breviter stipitatum, obscure 5-nerve,
dorso et marginibus tenuiter pubescens; palea
quam lemma paulo brevior, glabra; granum
orbicularo-oblongum.

Plants annual, about 30 cm tall; culms as-
cending, slender, branched, rooting at the lower
nodes, slightly compressed, the internodes gla-
brous, the nodes pubescent to pilose; sheaths
loose, shorter than the internodes, glabrous or
the margins ciliate, the cilia gradually increas-
ing in length toward the pilose upper portion
and continuous with the fringe of long, white
hairs which form the ligule; blades lanceolate,
2-4 em long, 3-5 mm wide, the veins and mar-
gins scaberulous, the auricles papillose-pilose;
panicles ovate, 3-5 cm long, 2.5—4 em wide, the
branches spreading, flexuous, nonglandular;

3 Mem. B. P. Bishop Mus. 8: 199, fig. 90. 1922.
4 Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 21: 8. 1908.

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VOL. 33, NO. 5

spikelets elliptic-oblong, 1.5-1.7 mm long, 1—1.2
mm wide, greenish to purplish; glumes sub-
equal, about as long as the spikelet, both 9-
nerved, broadly obtuse, sparsely hispidulous,
the second more prominently convex than the
first; staminate lemma about as long as the
spikelet, obscurely 5-nerved, membranous, its
palea of the same length and texture, obscurely
2-nerved; fertile lemma distinctly shorter than
the spikelet, chartaceous, short-stipitate, ellip-
tic to elliptic-obovate, plano-convex, 5-nerved,
finely pubescent on the back and margin; palea
slightly shorter than the lemma, ovate to el-
liptic-ovate, glabrous, enclosing a _ perfect
flower; grain brown, orbicular-oblong.

The type is in the herbarium of the Univer-
sity of Michigan, fragment of type in the U. S.
National Herbarium, collected by E. W.
Erlanson, no. 5190, January 8, 1934, at the
edge of a paddy field, Trivandrum, Travancore,
South India. ‘

The specific epithet refers to the muddy
habitat of this grass.

While the characters of this species agree in
many respects with those of Isachne globosa
(Thunb.) O. Kuntze,® it is distinguished from
the latter by the smaller spikelets, sparsely
hispidulous glumes, and the short-pubescent
back of the upper lemma. I[sachne globosa
(Thunb.) O. Kuntze is based on Milium globo-
sum Thunberg.® Laségue’ states that Thun-
berg’s specimens are in Stockholm, Sweden,
which indicates that the type is probably in the
famous herbarium of the Naturhistoriska
Riksmuseet. Since present world conditions ~
make the type inaccessible for examination, the
determination of the Thunberg species is based
on his original description and the topotype
collected by Hisauti (U.S. National Herbarium
no. 1162864), July 1921, at Yokohama, Japan.

5 Revisio genera plantarum 2: 778. 1891.

6 Flora Japonica 49. 1784.

7 Musée botanique de A. Benjamin Delessert 344.
1845.

May 15, 1943

BROWN: UPPER CRETACEOUS CLIMBING FERN

141

PALEOBOTANY.—A climbing fern from the Upper Cretaceous of Wyoming.'
Routanp W. Brown, U. 8. Geological Survey.

The fern described here is, so far as I am
aware, the first authentic Cretaceous and
earliest known species of Lygodium from
North America. I found these specimens in
a small collection made on September 29,
1913, by V. H. Barnett and J. B. Reeside,
Jr., of the United States Geological Survey,
isec. 6, 1.33 N., R. 78 W., on the bank
of the North Platte River, 4 miles east of
Casper, Wyo. On the 1925 Geological Map
of Wyoming this locality is within the area
designated as Pierre shale. Shaw’s (1909,
pl. 9) more detailed map, depicting the
Glenrock coal field, differentiates the upper
part of the Pierre shale as a sandy, shaly,
coal-bearing sequence, in which this locality
occupies a position near coal B, which over-
lies what is now called the Parkman sand-
stone member of the Mesaverde formation,
a part of the Montana group of the Upper
Cretaceous. The matrix containing these
specimens is a gray shale with a tinge of
pink, especially when wet.

The several floras embraced by the Mesa-
verde formation or group and its equiva-
lents are much in need of critical study and
correlation. At most localities in New
Mexico and Colorado where the Mesaverde
is well developed the formation has thus far
proved relatively barren, but in the vicinity
of Rock Springs, Wyo., some strata as-

sociated with coal seams yield particularly ~

beautiful, well-preserved specimens of ferns,
conifers, and dicotyledons.

Besides the new species of fern, the col-

lection from Casper, Wyo., includes several
other unidentified ferns and a few dicotyle-
donous leaf fragments.

SCHIZAEACEAE
Lygodium pumilum Brown, n. sp.
Figs. 1-5

Sterile pinnules of palmate outline, in
pairs, 2 cm or less in width, generally with
four lobes, which are of nearly even width

? Published by permission of the Director, Geo-
logical Survey, U. 8S. Department of the Interior.
Received March 22, 1943.

throughout but may sometimes be slightly
spatulate. Tips of the lobes broadly rounded.
Margins obscurely toothed. Bases cuneate
to rounded, but none cordate as in some
living species. Petiolules short. Primary
venation the result of two dichotomies, and
secondary venation generally once-forked.
No fertile pinnules were found.

Figs. 1-5.—Lygodium pumilum Brown, n. sp.
Natural size.

This species has the smallest pinnules of
any fossil Lygodiwm known, if one rejects
the very doubtful form called Lygodiwm? .
antiquorum Shirley (1898, p. 17, pl. 17, fig.
3) from the early Mesozoic strata of Queens-
land, Australia. This is a 3-lobed specimen
about one-fourth the size of the pinnules of
L. pumilum. It was thought to be a fertile
pinnule, but as illustrated it is only a
tantalizing outline. Consequently, judgment
regarding its true identity must be reserved.

Describing the Paleocene species, Lygo-
dium coloradense, from the Dawson arkose
in the Denver Basin of Colorado, F. H.
Knowlton (1930, p. 30) discussed the living
and fossil species of Lygodium. It appears
that the only American Cretaceous species
so far reported are L. trichomanoides Les-
quereux from the Dakota sandstone of
Kansas and L. compactum Lesquereux from
the Laramie formation of Colorado. It was
Knowlton’s opinion, in which I concur, that
these species, founded upon single fragments
neither of which can be identified with cer-

142

tainty, are of little or no value. They are
examples of the unfortunate practice of at-
taching generic and specific labels to speci-
mens with insufficient character to warrant
such distinction, with the ultimate result of
bringing paleobotany into disrepute. These
two specimens should be and are hereby re-
jected as representing identifiable species of
Lygodium. This leaves L. pumilum as the
only known authentic American Cretaceous
species. Its diminutiveness clearly separates
it from the Tertiary species.

One authentic European species, Lygo-
dium cretaceum Debey and Ettingshausen
(1859, p. 198, pl. 2, figs. 18-21; pl. 8, fig. 28),
said to be from the Senonian of Prussia, is
represented by fertile and sterile foliage.
The sporangia of this species occur on the
margins of leafy pinnules, a habit shown by
a number of living species.

Lygodium pumilum resembles no living
species very closely, but apparently belongs
in the group that includes L. palmatum, the
climbing fern of the eastern United States.
The latter, rather rare now because it was
indiscriminately collected for decorative
purposes before receiving legal protection,
frequents moist thickets and open woods in
lowlands but may sometimes be found at
elevations exceeding 2,000 feet. Most of the
40 living species of Lygodium now listed are
tropical or subtropical. They have a lithe,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

willowy attractiveness, and their dissected
foliage displays great variation, which
makes accurate identification of the species
extremely difficult. The climbing portion
above ground corresponds to the frond in
nonclimbing ferns, and the foliage itself,
both fertile and sterile, constitutes sub-
divisions of the frond, called pinnules by
some and pinnae by. others.

Considering that palms are also found in
the Mesaverde formation, we may conjec-
ture that Lygodium pumilum was a member
of a floral assemblage adapted to a warmer,
moister, less rigorous climate than that
which prevails in Wyoming today.

I am grateful to Dr. William R. Maxon,
of the National Museum, for the privilege of
consultation with him during the prepara-
tion of this paper.

LITERATURE CITED

Suaw, E.W. The Glenrock coal field, Wyoming.
U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 341: 151-164.
1909.

SHIRLEY, JOHN.
Queensland. Queensland Geol.
Bull. 7. 1898.

Knowuron, F. H. The flora of the Denver and
associated formations of Colorado. U.S.
Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 155. 1930.

Dressy, M. H., and Errrnesnausen, C. Ur-
weltlichen Acrobryen des Kreidegebirges von
Aachen und Maestricht. Denkschr. Akad.
Wiss. Wien 17: 183-248. 1859.

Additions to the fossil flora of
Survey

ORNITHOLOGY.—Description of a third form of curassow of the genus Pauxi.*
ALEXANDER WETMORE, U.S. National Museum, and W. H. Puetps, Caracas,

Venezuela.

The genus Pauzi has been one of the least
known of the interesting group of curassows
in spite of the fact that the typical form was
named by Linnaeus in 1766. The earliest
Specimens to come to the attention of
students of birds apparently were obtained
from Indians, and were attributed errone-
ously to Mexico, the Island of Curacao,
Cayenne, the upper Orinoco, and various
other localities where the species is not
known to exist. In 1870 Sclater and Salvin
recorded Pauai from near Caracas, and it
was determined in the years that followed
that these birds inhabited the forested

1 Received March 25, 1943.

mountain areas of northern Venezuela from
near Caracas west to the vicinity of Mérida.
Comparatively few specimens have been re-
ceived in museums in the period since the
latter part of the sixteenth century when
Aldrovandus wrote of it under the name of
the Gallina indica alia, until recently when
its haunts have become better known. Un-
expectedly, two were obtained recently by
M. A. Carriker, Jr., for the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, during
work in Bolivia, in the hills above Bolivar,
at 2,500 feet elevation near Palmar, in the
Yungas de Cochabamba. These proved to
have the casque rounded and conical in-
stead of swollen and were described by Bond

May 15, 1943

and de Schauensee as Pawaxi unicornis.?
From February to March, 1940, W. H.
Phelps put an expedition in the field in the
eastern slopes of the Sierra de Perija, west
of Machiques, in northwestern Venezuela.
One of the collectors of the party purchased
from Indians of the Manastara tribe living

WETMORE AND PHELPS: A THIRD FORM OF CURASSOW

143

ported a paujz in the adjacent forests, but
none could be found during the course of
the expedition. In 1942 a second necklace
was received in Caracas as a gift with the
assurance that it came from the Indians of
the Machiques region. This second necklace
was composed of beads, the bills, chest

Fig. 1.—Head of Pauwzi p. unicornis Bond and de Schauensee (above)
and of P. p. pauai (Linnaeus) one-half natural size, reproduced to scale,
through the courtesy of J. S. Bond and R. M. de Schauensee.

at La Sabana a necklace made of beads,
with decorations in the form of three head
scalps of Pauxzt composed of the upper half
of the bill, the casque, and the skin of the
crown down to the eyes. The Indians re-

2 Pauxt unicorns Bond and de Schauensee,

Notulae Naturae Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,

no. 29: 1. Oct. 24, 1939.

feathers, and humeri of two species of
toucans, and six of the Pauzz scalps.

In 1941 M. A. Carriker, Jr., collecting
for the U. 8. National Museum, following
work with A. Wetmore through the Guajira,
continued into the Sierra Negra at the
northern end of the Perij4 range on the
Colombian side of the mountains. In this

144

work he secured five fine skins of Pauzz, a
male at 1,800 feet near El Bosque back of
Carriapia on June 21, a male at 1,200 to
1,500 feet near Tierra Nueva, July 21, and
two adult females and one juvenile between
4,000 and 4,500 feet near Monte Elias in the
same general region on August 9 and 11.

In Caracas, on comparing the scalps from
the necklaces with skins from farther east in
Venezuela, it was evident at once that an
unknown form was concerned. After com-
parison there, through the kindness of Dr.
William Beebe, six of the scalps, showing
the variations in form, were brought to the
American Museum of Natural History,
where E. Thomas Gilliard made further
studies with material available there and in
Philadelphia, assembling much valuable in-
formation. When the series of skins in the
National Museum came to his attention it
seemed desirable to select one of those as
type rather than one of the fragmentary
heads as was first intended. As Gilliard was
under necessity of undertaking other work
that has taken him out of the United States,
we are completing the study with the aid of
additional material.

The investigation has been much assisted
by the kindness of Miss Jocelyn Crane, of
the Department of Tropical Research, New
York Zoological Society, in photographing
in Caracas the nine heads obtained from the
Indian necklaces.

The hitherto unknown form may be
known as—

Pauxi pauxi gilliardi, n. subsp.

Characters.—Similar to Pauzxit pauxi pauxt
(Linnaeus)? but with the frontal casque or
helmet smaller, less swollen (Fig. 2) ; bill smaller.

Description—Type, U.S.N.M. 368540, from
1,200 to 1,500 feet elevation near Tierra Nueva.
at the northern end of the Serranfa de Valledu-
par, or Sierra Negra, slightly south of east of
Fonseca, Departamento de Magdalena, Co-
lombia. Abdomen, extreme lower breast, under
tail-coverts, and tip of tail white; rest of
plumage black; feathers of head and upper
neck, short, thick and soft to the touch, those
surrounding the eye being very small; foreneck,

3 Crax pauzi Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 12,
1: 270. 1766.

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VOL. 33, NO. 5

breast, and sides with a greenish sheen, with
each feather bordered distally with clear black,
producing a dull, squamated appearance that
is most prominent on the upper breast and
foreneck; exposed feathers of dorsal surface,
including wings and tail, also with a dull green-
ish cast with the wing coverts, lower hind neck,
upper back, and longer upper tail-coverts
margined narrowly with deep black to produce
somewhat indistinct squamations; lower back
and rump dull black. Bill dull red; casque
blackish brown, with a wash of dull silvery gray
on distal third; tarsi and toes dull reddish
brown; claws blackish brown (from dried skin).

Fig. 2.—Head of Pauzi p. gilliardt,
one-half natural size.

Measurements.—Males, 2 specimens, wing
354, 370, tail 305, 317, culmen from base of
casque 32.1, 33.7, tarsus 110.3-112.1, length of
casque (casque deformed in one bird) 58.3,
width of casque 24.1, depth of casque 24.5,
greatest circumference of casque 76 mm.

Females, 2 specimens, wing 336, 352, tail 290,
292, culmen from base of casque 30.4, 30.7,

May 15, 1943

tarsus 102.9, 103, length of casque 53.5, 57.8,
width of casque 23.9, 27, depth. of casque 24,
27.1, greatest circumference of casque 76, 83
mm.

Type, male, wing 354, tail 305, culmen from
casque 32.1, tarsus 110.3, length of casque 58.3,
width of casque 24.1, depth of casque 24.5,
greatest circumference of casque 76 mm.

Range.—Known from the mountain forests
of the northern part of the Sierra de Perij4 from
1,200 to at least 4,500 feet elevation from the
region east of Fonseca, Magdalena, Colombia,
around to the headwaters of the Rio Negro
above Machiques, Zulia, Venezuela.

Remarks.—It is easily apparent that the
differences in the three forms of the genus
Pauxzi now known are found mainly in the
casque, which varies from the cylindrical,
somewhat tapering form seen in the two
known specimens of P. wnicornis to the con-
siderably swollen, figlike shape of typical
pauxt, with gilliard: coming between (Figs.
1 and 2). The feathers of the center of the
crown, nape, and hind neck in unicornis are
stiffer and are glossy, instead of soft and
velvety; but tendency toward this condition
is found also in pauai and gilliardt.

Comparative measurements (in mm.) of
the casque in all available material follow,
those registered for gilliardi including the
nine heads from Indian necklaces in the
Phelps collection:

11 pauat 13 gilliardi 2 unicornis
Culmen, from base of
GUS op 65 ea Oe 32-39 29-36 32-35
Greatest width of casque. 28-40 19-27 20
Greatest depth of casque. 30.5-38 21-27 .1 23
Greatest circumference
GMCASAUC cis oe cs se ba 93-117 63-85 66-75

The three races will stand therefore as
follows:

PAUXI PAUXI PAUXI (Linnaeus)

Mountain forests of northwestern Vene-
zuela from near Caracas, through the Cum-
bre de Valencia to the Mérida region.

PAUXI PAUXI GILLIARDI Phelps and
Wetmore

Forests of the Sierra de Perij4 from the
western slope in Colombia east of Fonseca,
Magdalena, and the Montes de Oca,
Guajira, Colombia, around to the head-

WETMORE AND PHELPS: A THIRD FORM OF CURASSOW

145

waters of the Rio Negro above Machiques
in Venezuela, probably extending much
farther south.

PAUXI PAUXI UNICORNIS Bond and
de Schauensee

Known from two specimens from near
Palmar, Yungas de Cochabamba, Bolivia.

The form of the casque varies somewhat
with age. Carriker secured a young female
of gilliardi at Monte Elias, Magdalena,
Colombia, on August 11, 1941, that ap-
parently is not quite half grown. It already
has the plumage of the adult, except that a
few bright brown feathers of the young
plumage are still found in the crown, some
of the wing coverts and back feathers are
tipped, or occasionally mottled lightly with
bright brown and buff, the secondaries and
tertials are mottled somewhat with bright
brown and the feathers of the sides, lower
breast, and legs are tipped with whitish to
buffy brown. The casque in this bird is
merely a rounded knob above the base of
the culmen, rising about 7 mm from a base
that is approximately 15 mm long and 8 mm
wide. Gilliard’s notes describe an immature
pauxt in the American Museum of Natural
History (no. 471586) with the casque about
two-thirds developed which has the greatest
circumference about 80 mm. One or two of
the heads of gildzardi in the Phelps collection
may be younger than the others as indicated
by the smaller casque. The most southern
race, unicornis, has the casque more uni-
formly cylindrical throughout. The two
northern forms are marked by a posterior
swelling that reaches its maximum develop-
ment in typical pauwaz.

Linnaeus‘ based the description of his
Crax pauzi on the accounts of Aldrovandus,
Willughby, Hernandez, Edwards, Brisson,
and other early authors, and from these
sources indicated that the bird came from
‘“Mexico.”’ The occurrence of the species has
been in much confusion with various er-
roneous localities included. From present
knowledge it appears probable that the few
examples seen by the early writers came
from Venezuela, since that is the section of
the known range ordinarily accessible to the

4 Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1: 270. 1766.

146

early travelers. We, therefore, designate the
type locality as near Caracas, Venezuela,
since in early days forests suitable for Pauaz
were found near the city.

As regards the altitudinal distribution of
these birds it is erroneous to limit them to
the Tropical Zone. Two specimens of Pauazz
in the Phelps collection were obtained in the
Cumbre de Valencia, Carabobo at 1,440
meters (4,725 feet), and at Cubiro, Lara, at
1,900 meters (about 6,200 feet). These are
in the lower edge of the Subtropical Zone.

We have pleasure in naming the new form
for E. Thomas Gilliard, in recognition of his
work on the material on which it is based.

Specimens examined.—Pauxt p. pauzt.
Venezuela: (American Museum of Natural
History) 30", 7 sex ?, Montafias del Capas,
Mérida region (Bricefio); 1 ©, Limones,
Rio Limones, Mérida region; 1 sex?, zoo
specimen; 1 sex?, ‘“‘northwest Venezuela”’

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

(mounted). (Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia) 3 sex?, zoo specimens; 1
sex?, “northern South America.’’ (Phelps
collection, Caracas) 1c’, Cumbre de Valen-
cia, Carabobo, at 1,440 meters; 1 @,
Cubiro, Lara, 1,900 meters.

Pauxi p. gilliard:. Colombia: (U. 8. Na-
tional Museum) 10”, El Bosque, 1,800 feet
elevation, in the Sierra Negra, near Car-
riapia, Guajira; 1 o (type) Tierra Nueva,
1,200—1,500 feet in the Sierra Negra, Mag-
dalena; 2 © adult, 1 @ juvenile, Monte
Elias, 4,500 feet in the Sierra Negra, Magda-
lena. Venezuela: (Phelps Collection, Cara-
cas) 9 heads, sex?, on the Rio Negro above
Machiques, in the Sierra de Perija, Zulia.

Pauzi p. unicornis. Bolivia (Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia) 1 o&
(type), 1 9, hills above Bolivar, 2,500 feet
elevation near Palmar, Yungas de Cocha-
bamba.

MAMMALOGY.—The systematic status of certain pocket gophers, with special ref-

erence to Thomomys monticola.!

In various papers published during recent
years the writer has made efforts to bring
together in specific or near-specific groups
many of the names proposed for pocket
gophers during a pioneer period when sys-
tematic relationships were very imperfectly
known. Our knowledge of these relation-
ships is still far from complete, but, espe-
cially in view of the extraordinary number
of names involved, some semblance of sys-
tematic order is imperative. In dealing with
the names the term “group” may con-
veniently be used rather loosely to designate
either an aggregation of subspecies or an
assemblage of closely allied species.

In ‘Remarks on Pocket Gophers, with
Special Reference to Thomomys talpoides”’
(Journ. Mamm. 20: 233. May 14, 1939), I
traced the local range of the Thomomys
talpoides series south in western Washington
to the Columbia River. The apparent re-
placement of populations of the talpozdes
type by the Thomomys monticola series in
the Pacific coast region south of the Colum-
bia River was also noted, but the subspecies
were not formally segregated, and such

1 Received March 11, 1943.

E. A. GoLpMAN, Fish and Wildlife Service.

confused combinations as Thomomys doug-
lasit oregonus Merriam have remained in
current literature. At the suggestion of
Gerrit S. Miller, Jr. certain names are here
revised in order to make them available for
inclusion in a new list of North American
mammals being prepared by him.

LIST OF SUBSPECIES OF THOMOMYS MONTICOLA,
WITH TYPE LOCALITIES

Thomomys monticola monticola Allen: Mount
Tallac, Eldorado County, Calif.
Synonyms.—Thomomys monticola pine-
torum Merriam: Sisson, west base of
Mount Shasta, Siskiyou County, Calif.;
Thomomys monticola premaxillaris Grin-
nell: 2 miles south of South Yolla Bolly
Mountain (7,500 feet), Tehama County,
Calif. :

Thomomys monticola oregonus Merriam: Ely,
near Oregon City, Willamette Valley,
Clackamas County, Ore.

Thomomys monticola hesperus Merriam: Tilla-
mook, Tillamook County, Ore.

Thomomys monticola niger Merriam: Seaton,
near mouth of Umpqua River, Douglas
County, Ore.

Thomomys monticola mazama Merriam: Anna

May 15, 1943

Creek, near Crater Lake, Klamath County,
Ore.
Thomomys monticola hellert Elliot: Gold Beach,
mouth of Rogue River, Curry County, Ore.
SUBSPECIES OF THE THOMOMYS UM-
BRINUS GROUP NOT PREVIOUSLY
RECOGNIZED AS SUCH

Thomomys umbrinus quercinus Burt and Camp-
bell: Pefia Blanca Spring, altitude 4,500
feet, near Mexican boundary, north of
Monument 128, Pajarito Mountains, Santa
Cruz County, Ariz.

Thomomys umbrinus proximus Burt and Camp-
bell: Old Parker Ranch (Pickett’s Ranch
on U. 8S. Geological Survey topographic
map, Patagonia Quadrangle, edition of
August 1905), altitude 4,800 feet, west
slope of Santa Rita Mountains, Pima
County, Ariz.

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

147

SUBSPECIES OF THOMOMYS BOTTAE HITHERTO
TREATED AS DISTINCT SPECIES

Thomomys bottae magdalenae Nelson and Gold-
man: Magdalena Island, Lower California,
Mexico.

Thomomys bottae martirensis Allen: San Pedro
Martir Mountains (8,200 feet), Lower
California, Mexico.

Additional specimens of Thomomys bot-
tae collinus Goldman, from Fly Park (9,000
feet), Chiricahua Mountains, Ariz., indicate
that the characters ascribed to Thomomys
umbrinus chiricahuae Nelson and Goldman,
from Pinery Canyon (7,500 feet), Chirica-
hua Mountains, Ariz., are within the range
of individual variation in that subspecies.
The name Thomomys umbrinus chiricahuae
should, therefore, be placed in the synonymy
of Thomomys bottae collinus.

ICHTHYOLOGY.—The osteology and relationships of the bathypelagic fishes of the
genus Bathylagus Gunther with notes on the systematic position of Leuroglossus

stilbius Gilbert and Therobromus eallorhinus Lucas.
CHAPMAN, California Academy of Sciences.

i SCHULTZ. )

This report describes the bony structures
and the gross visceral anatomy of the genus
Bathylagus, discusses its relationships, and
defines the family Bathylagidae. A brief ac-
count is given of the anatomy of Leuro-
glossus stilbius, and reasons why it should be
placed in the Bathylagidae rather than the
Argentinidae are listed. Therobromus callo-
rhinus, known only from bones found in the
stomachs of the fur seals of the North
Pacific, is identified as a species of Bathyla-
gus.

The genus Bathylagus comprises at pres-
ent 16 species of fishes, 8 of which have been
described in the past 12 years. Representa-
tives occur on both sides of the North and
South Atlantic Oceans, in the Antarctic, off
the west coast of North America from
southern Mexico to the Bering Sea, and in
the Okhotsk Sea. They typically inhabit
deeper water layers outside the continental
shelf (Norman, 1930; Parr, 1931 and 1937;
Beebe, 1933; Chapman, 1939 and 1940), al-

1 Received February 11, 1943.

WiLBERT McL&rop
(Communicated by LEONARD

though B. argyrogaster has been taken
toward the surface layers (Norman, 1930).

Bathylagus was originally placed by Giin-
ther (1878) in the Salmonidae. Regan (1909
and 1914) considered it to be a member of
the Argentinidae, and Norman (1930), Parr
(1931), Beebe (1933), and others have fol-
lowed him. Jordan and Evermann (1896)
placed it in the Microstomidae, as did
Barnard (1925) and others. In recent years
it has been placed both in the Argentinidae
and Microstomidae by the compilers of the
Pisces section of the Zoological Record. Gill
(1884), with his usual keen insight, erected
for the genus the family Bathylagidae by
name only, but Goode and Bean (1895) gave
a diagnosis of the family. Gill’s classification
has been followed by Jordan (1923), Jordan,
Evermann, and Clark (1930), Fowler (1936)
Parr (1937), and most recently by Berg
(1940).

This study is based upon dissections of
Bathylagus pacificus Gilbert taken by the
International Fisheries Commission in the
Gulf of Alaska and off the coast of British

148

Columbia. The illustrations are based on an
adult female, with well-developed eggs,
taken off the west coast of the Queen Char-
lotte Islands, IFC station 321¢ (Thompson
and Van Cleve, 1936). Diagnoses have been
made on specimens of B. alascanus Chap-
man and Leuroglossus stilbius Gilbert. Un-
less otherwise mentioned, references to the
anatomy of Argentina, Muicrostoma, and
Macropinna are based upon dissections by
the writer.

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the kind-
ness of H. A. Dunlop, director of investiga-
tions, International Fisheries Commission,
in allowing me to work on their specimens
of Bathylagus and Macropinna; Dr. George
S. Myers, Stanford University, in providing
me with a specimen of Leuroglossus; and
Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, curator of fishes,
U. 8. National Museum, for the loan of
specimens of Argentina and Microstoma.

ANTORBITAL PORTION OF CRANIUM

Ethmoid cartilage (Figs. 1-3) restricted in
extent by size of ethmoid and prefrontal os-
sifications; extending anteriorly as broad, flat
plate between dorsal and ventral ethmoid
bones; thickest between prefrontals where it
rises to frontals and shows between them;
pierced on inner edge of prefrontals by foramina
of olfactory nerves; extending unbroken under
frontals to sphenotics, thus separating orbito-
sphenoid and alisphenoids from frontals; ven-
tral surface flat, with palatine synchondrized
along entire edge anterior to prefrontals as in
Macropinna (Chapman, 1942b); running pos-
teriorly for short distance along parasphenoid.

Mesethmoid (Figs. 1, 3) consisting of a nearly
circular, flat plate, which forms greater part of
rostral plate, and a strong buttress, which rises
from dorsal surface of this plate to meet
frontals.

Ventral ethmoid (Fig. 2) a thin circular plate
like mesethmoid above it; shallowly concave on
ventral side; perhaps homologous with similar
bone in certain osmerids (Chapman, 1941b).

Frontals (Figs. 1-3) everywhere separate,
with cartilage exposed between them pos-
teriorly, anteriorly, and between orbits; lying
over only a portion of edges of sphenotics and
supraoccipital posteriorly; sloping evenly and
gently downward from supraoccipital to mes-

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VOL. 33, NO. 5

ethmoid. Each bone bearing on its lateral edge
a high and prominent trough in which frontal
extension of lateral line system lies and to
which broad, thin supraocular and postfrontal
of circumorbital series are attached mem-
branously; these structures probably special
ossifications of sensory system, but indistin-
guishably fuse with frontals; higher anteriorly
than width of frontals between them and re-
sponsible for concavity of interocular region;
formed from extremely thin bone and quite
separate from broad supraorbitals.

Prefrontals (Figs. 1-3) thin, broad ossifica-
tions of nearly circular shape in lateral ethmoid
cartilage, with very thin lateral edges.

Parasphenoid (Figs. 2, 3) long, slender, and
straight, extending from ventral ethmoid to
basioccipital; concave on ventral surface under
ethmoid, with broad posterior shaft of vomer
lying in cavity; heaviest and widest where it
reaches prootics; posterior extension of bone
thin and lying flatly in shallow concavity of
basiooccipital. No true myodome. Parasphenoid
flatly attached to prootics and heavy cartilage
between those bones so ocular muscles attach
in shallow concavity formed by short wings of
parasphenoid and bulky ventral edges of pro-
otics.

Vomer (Figs. 1-3) heavy and large, project-
ing anteriorly beyond ethmoid structures; on
anterior edge bearing 30 to 32 conical teeth,
which are set in sockets in bone, project slightly
anteriorly as well as ventrally, and form entire
dentition of upper jaw; a notch in bone at
lateral corner of dentigerous area into which
anterior end of palatine fits; long, broad, me-
dian shaft projects back in concavity of ventral
ethmoid to end on parasphenoid.

POSTORBITAL PORTION OF CRANIUM

Cartilage of postorbital portion of cranium
everywhere restricted in extent (Figs. 1-3); re-
duced to narrow bands, which disappear be-
tween supraoccipital and epiotics; expanded
between supraoccipital and sphenotics, but
these areas covered by parietals; somewhat ex-
panded between epiotics and exoccipitals;
greatest expansion between basioccipital and
prootics, but considerable part of this covered
by parasphenoid; sockets of hyomandibula
lines with cartilage.

Dorsal surface of postorbital portion of

May 15, 1943

cranium with no prominent ridges or depres-
sions, sloping gently and evenly from parietals
to posterior edge of pterotics without definite
temporal fossae, and sloping between conical
tips of epiotics and supraoccipital down to
foramen magnum.

Supraoccipital (Figs. 1, 2) broad and shield-
shaped, forming prominent portion of dorsal
surface of cranium; anterolateral edges of
bones covered by parietals; lateral portion of
anterior edge covered by frontals, but median
portion exposed; bluntly pointed posterior end
sloping downward, but broadly separated from
foramen magnum by epiotics and exoccipitals;
short, sharp vane of bone projecting from mid-
line, on which originate two thin but tough
muscles, which extend back between myomeres
and along distal ends of interneurals to origin
of dorsal fin.

Thin, scalelike parietals (Figs. 1, 3) widely
separated by supraoccipital, partially covering
sphenotics and supraoccipital and completely
covering cartilage between those bones.

Epiotics (Figs. 1, 8) prominent, conical bones
meeting broadly behind supraoccipitals, re-
ceiving ligament from dorsal fork of post-
temporal on blunt tip of bone, and each with
deep concavity on posterior surface. —

Sphenotics (Figs. 1-3) prominent bones with
considerable dorsal, lateral, and anterior sur-
face. Socket of hyomandibular resting not so
much on sphenotic as upon cartilage between
that bone and prootic.

Pterotics (Figs. 1-3) with socket of hyo-
mandibular angling across entire ventral sur-
face of each bone. From dorsal surface a long,
bulky column of cartilage, which joins ventral
and dorsal surfaces internally, can be seen.

Alisphenoids (Figs. 2, 3) large bones provid-
ing anterolateral protection for brain; separated
from prootics, sphenotics, and orbitosphenoid
by slender bands of cartilage, and everywhere
separate ventrally.

Orbitosphenoids (Figs. 2, 3) meeting mesially
but not completely fused; from ventral edge a
very thin strand of ossification extends into
interorbital membrane; olfactory nerves emerg-
ing between bones anteriorly.

Ventral side of cranium marked by triangu-
lar expansion of basioccipital and prootics, in
which the large otoliths lie. Otolith capsules not
projecting ventrally as much as in Macropinna
or the osmerids.

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

149

Prootics (Figs. 2, 3) largest bones of ventral
surface of cranium, marked by otolith expan-
sions and by small posterior foramen of trigem-
inofacial complex; these two foramina sepa-
rated by thin, strongly ossified bridge, which
forms sharp ridge setting off anterior from ven-
tral surface of bone; bones separated ventrally
by broad, thick band of cartilage; anterior end
of this cartilage much thickened and slightly
concave, with shallow concavity between it and
parasphenoid. Posterior eye muscles inserted in
this area.

Each exoccipital (Figs. 1-3) strongly concave
on ventral side with two foramina in posterior
part of concavity, the posterior of which is
much the larger; posterior projection of bone
lying along condyle of basioccipital, sending
process dorsally, separated from similar process
of other exoccipital by narrow band of cartilage;
these two processes form sides and roof of
foramen magnum but do not form part of
condyle and do not articulate with any process
of first vertebra; concavity of posterior surface
of epiotic continued on posterior surface of ex-
occipital.

Constricted posterior end of basioccipital
(Figs. 1-3), which forms occipital condyle,
heavily ossified and bearing ridges of denser os-
sification ventrally and laterally; ventral sur-
face of bone shallowly concave anteriorly.

Opisthotic (not shown in Fig. 3) tiny and ob-
long; in some specimens lying entirely on exoc-
cipital midway between foramen of vagus nerve
and lateral edge of bone, and in others lying
more laterally and partially resting on cartilage
between exoccipital and pterotic; curving
around posterior edge of exoccipital and thus
with a small posterior surface which is not
visible dorsally ; receiving ligament from ventral
fork of posttemporal.

SPECIAL OSSIFICATIONS OF SENSORY SYSTEM

All bones associated with extension of lateral
line system over head thin and weak, most with
no tubes developed for protection of nerves, but
acting merely as supports. Nasal thin, slender,
semitubular, and almost flattened; lying direct-
ly over nasal capsule; by no means so big or
broad in my specimens as in Beebe’s (1933,
fig. 37). Six bones of circumorbital series as
shown by Beebe, except that in my specimens
postorbital considerably larger than supra-
orbital. It is interesting to note the turn evolu-

150

tion has taken in the big-eyed Bathylagus,
whose eyes are placed laterally and strongly
protected dorsally by the expanded supra-
orbital and postorbital; whereas in the big-eyed
Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933) and Macro-
pinna (Chapman, 1942b), which have the eyes
dorsally directed, these bones are absent and
the eyes are protected by enormously expanded
suborbitals, bones that are weakly developed in
Bathylagus.

A semitubular bone, attached to sphenotic
directly behind eye, bridging gap for nerve

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VOL. 338, NO. 5

ankylosed to that bone. Ossified tube for nerve
present on mandible, securely ankylosed to
both dentary and angular.

UPPER JAW

Premaxillary and maxillary thin and delicate,
neither bearing teeth nor having gape edge
thickened for that purpose (Fig. 4); upper jaw
loosely bound to cranium by delicate mem-
branes only, neither bone equipped with an-
terior condyle for attachment to cranium; an-
terior end of premaxillary lying in groove be-

Fig. 1.—Dorsal view of the cranium of Bathylagus pacificus. Fig. 2.—ventral view
of the cranium of the same. 8.2.

between sphenotic and preopercle. Nerve en-
cased in tube on dorsal arm of preopercle, but
on ventral arm this tube opens ventrally to be-
come trough. A short tube protects nerve on
lateral face of opercle, projecting downward
from condyle. Protection for nerve over sphenot-
ic and pterotic irregular, not tubular and ex-
ceedingly flimsy. Lightly ossified tissue lending
some support to nerve between cranium and
supracleithrum. Nerve running ventrally on
supracleithrum in trough of thin bone securely

tween anterior end of mesethmoid and vomer,
not meeting premaxillary of other side; bound
rather loosely to premaxillary but not to pala-
tine. No supramaxillary found in any specimen
(such a bone is shown by Beebe, 1938, in fig.
36, but not in fig. 39, and is not mentioned by
him in the text).

MANDIBLE

Mandible (Fig. 4) consisting of dentary,
articular, angular, sesamoid articular, Meckel’s

May 15, 1943

cartilage, and a superficial ossified tube for
mandibular branch of lateral line system. Den-
tary forming greater part of mandible, so thin
that sesamoid articular can be seen through
it in stained specimens; overlying considerable
portion of articular; bearing 82 teeth in speci-
men drawn, which are conical, small, and
closely pressed together in a single series.

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

151

interior shaft of articular to a similar but
slenderer shaft on inner side of dentary; not
thick, but broad posteriorly. Sesamoid articular
thin and of irregular shape, with longest axis
anterior-posterior, and area about one-third
that shown for articular (Fig. 4); lying princi-
pally on dorsal edge of Meckel’s cartilage, but
extending also onto articular and dentary. Thin

Fig. 3.—Lateral view of the cranium of the Bathylagus pacificus. Fig. 4.—Lateral view
of the suspensorium of the same. 3.2.

Angular small but heavily ossified, receiving
broad ligament from interopercle. Articular
triangular with heavily ossified socket of articu-
lation at apex, with strong, thick shaft of bone
extending forward from socket on mesial side,
presumably ossification of posterior third of
Meckel’s cartilage.

Meckel’s cartilage about one-third length
of mandible, extending from above-mentioned

ossified tube for mandibular branch of lateral
line system on external side of dentary and
articular, obviously a special ossification of
sensory system but indistinguishably fused to
the mandibular bones. Sensory canal com-
municates with exterior by means of four pores
in the bone.
PALATINE ARCH
Palatine (Fig. 4) securely joined along entire

152

dorsal edge to ethmoid cartilage as in Macro-
pinna, thus forming firm support between bones
of oral cavity and cranium; band of cartilage
behind palatine also participating in this junc-
tion. Anterior end of palatine more heavily os-
sified than rest of bone and inserted in cavity
between vomer and ethmoid cartilage; no teeth
on palatine of specimens examined, but since
vomerine dentition extends posteriorly under
anterior tip of palatine, the latter appears to
bear a few teeth until a complete dissection is
made.

Pterygoid (Fig. 4) simple, well-ossified bone
joining palatine and quadrate together strongly,
overlapping both bones laterally as well as
mesially.

Quadrate (Fig. 4) has form of nearly half a
circle, with small but heavily ossified condyle;
slender process projecting posteriorly along pre-
opercle and symplectic, thus binding palatine
and hyoid arches together and binding both to
preopercle.

Broad band of cartilage around quadrate
forms broad patch between quadrate and pala-
tine and extends around end of latter to syn-
chondrize with ethmoid cartilage. This does not
extend posteriorly along symplectic. Simple,
thin membrane between symplectic and meso-
pterygoid.

Mesopterygoid (Fig. 4) broad, thin and very
similar to same structure in Macropinna and
Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933); ventral edge
lies under quadrate and palatine (dotted line
in Fig. 4), and entirely mesial to cartilage of
this region, to which it is tightly bound. Bone
appears to be an ossification of membranes of
roof of mouth and therefore not properly con-
sidered with cartilage bones of palatine arch.
Metapterygoid either absent or represented by
small bit of bone behind mesopterygoid (Fig.
4). Of same structure as mesopterygoid and
separated from that bone by thin membrane
only; doubtfully homologous with metaptery-
goid of other isospondylous fishes.

HYOID ARCH

Hyomandibular (Fig. 4) articulating along
full lateral surface of pterotic and sphenotic as
in Macropinna and Opisthoproctus (Trewevas,
1933). Articulation anteriorly on cartilage be-
tween sphenotic and prootic. Opercular con-
dyle nearly as long as articular head although
much slenderer, leaving considerable open

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VOL. 33, NO. 5

space between opercle and preopercle. High,
thin wing of bone extending from lateral side of
hyomandibular at level of opercular condyle
attached by membranes to preopercle and ad-
jacent bone of circumorbital series. Truncus
hyoido-mandibularis facialis nerve pierces bone
in large foramen which extends nearly straight
ventrally from inner to outer side of bone to
emerge on thin wing of bone on posterior side of
shaft of hyomandibular. Wing of thin bone
present in anterior angle between articular head
and ventral shank of the bone.

Column of cartilage between hyomandibular
and symplectic (Fig. 4) with characteristic an-
terior twist so that symplectic does not con-
tinue in direct line with ventral shaft of hyo-
mandibular. A similar condition is found in
Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933). Interhyal ar-
ticulates with mesial side of this cartilage.

Symplectic (Fig. 4) a semicylindrical shaft
bent forward near its middle to form an ap-
proximately right angle with wing of thin bone
in angle. Symplectic extends to, but not be-
yond, cartilage around posterior edge of quad-
rate.

Hyoid apparatus (Fig. 5) consisting of inter-
hyal, epihyal, ceratohyal, two hypohyals, a
glossohyal (Fig. 6, not Fig. 5), and two broad
and thin branchiostegal rays, except for latter
all bones sturdy and thick, being heaviest bones
of skull. Branchiostegal rays inserted entirely
on cartilage surrounding ventral side of epihyal.
Ceratohyal constricted in its middle and with
numerous irregular ridges of denser ossification
there. Posterior two-thirds of glossohyal (Fig.
6) ossified ; anterior broader third cartilaginous.
Dental cement bone covering most of dorsal
surface of cartilage and extending back onto
ossified portion of element. It bears no teeth,
but since it presents a hardened, fairly sharp,
and slightly upturned anterior edge, it con-
ceivably may be of considerable aid in handling
live food.

OPERCULAR APPARATUS

All four opercular elements present (Fig. 4);
all thin, flexible bones. A few rays of denser os-
sification radiate outward from socket of arti-
culation of opercle. Short tube protecting por-
tion of lateral line system running downward
from articulation along exterior face of that
bone. Subopercle extends into space between
opercle and preopercle but does not fill it. Por-

May 15, 1943

tion of posterior edge of bone covered by oper-
cle. Long, slender interopercle nearly covered
by horizontal arm of preopercle; its anterior
end attached by a broad ligament to angular
and posterior end securely attached by mem-
branes to subopercle. Broad wing of thin bone
present in angle of preopercle. Sensory canal
tubular on vertical arm of preopercle and with
/ numerous small openings to surface dorsally,
but ventral edge of canal separated from main

\\
SEN

SCA

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

153

bone on horizontal arm and tube becomes a
trough. An interspace present between vertical
arm and lower end of hyomandibular, and be-
tween horizontal arm and symplectic, both
closed only by thin membranes.

GILL ARCHES

First three basibranchials (Fig. 6) ossified
but cartilaginous on both ends; ossified por-
tions of all three round in cross section. Last

Fig. 5.—Lateral view of the hyoid apparatus of the Bathylagus pacificus. Fig. 6.—Dorsal'view of the

ventral half of the gill arches of the same. Fig. 7—M

esial view of the shoulder girdle of the same.

Fig. 8.—Dorsal view of the right pelvic bone of the same. All figures are X3.2.

154

two basibranchials entirely cartilaginous, pre-
senting a flat dorsal surface but with a constric-

tion marking off two on ventral surface. Dental

cement bone joining dorsal surfaces of first and
second basibranchials and covering a portion
of cartilage between them, probably homolo-
gous with larger element in same position in
osmerid fishes and Plecoglossus (Chapman,
1941a). It bears no teeth.

Hypobranchials (Fig. 6) present on first three
arches. Those of third arch with anterior proc-
ess, which projects ventrally to a slight degree.
One can visualize the possible origin of the
peculiar third hypobranchial of the Osmeridae
and Plecoglossidae from this structure. If the
posterior process (the main portion of the bone)
diminished to nothing, until the ceratobranchial
touched the fourth basibranchial, and the an-
terior process elongated and turned more
ventrally until it surrounded the ventral aorta
the osmerid third hypobranchial would be
achieved.

Ceratobranchials (Fig. 6) on all five arches.
First three bent dorsally a little at middle.
Small muscle that originates on the hypobran-
chial inserted on slight projection from ventral
side of bone at this bend. Fourth ceratobran-
chial broad, somewhat thickened and con-
stricted anteriorly to an hour-glass shape. Wide
shelf of thin bone present in lateral (or an-
terior) angle on which broad muscle extending
dorsally to expanded fourth suprabranchial
originates. Fifth ceratobranchial a slender,
weak bone, which bears no teeth.

First three epibranchials ossified, and each
bears, near mesial end of dorsal side, a car-
tilage-capped process that articulates with sim-
lar processes from, respectively, the second,
third, and fourth suprabranchials. This process
largest on third epibranchial. Fourth epibran-
chial entirely cartilaginous and reduced to band
of cartilage attached firmly to ventral edge of
expanded fourth suprabranchial.

No suprabranchial found on first arch. Sec-
ond small and flat with dorsoanterior process
reaching to first epibranchial and a smaller
dorsoposterior process articulating with third
suprabranchial. Third suprabranchial more
elongate because of long anterior process.
Fourth suprabranchial broadly expanded and
little resembling others; turned nearly at right
angles to plane of other suprabranchials and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

extending dorsally until band of cartilage
around its dorsal end articulates with cranium.
Broad muscle inserted over entire posterior sur-
face of bone extending directly ventrally to
fourth ceratobranchial. This muscle must be of
considerable importance in the movements of
the gill arches. An identical apparatus is found
in Microstoma and Macropinna and probably
Opisthoproctus (Trewevas, 1933).

SHOULDER GIRDLE

All elements of shoulder girdle weak, thin,
and more or less pliable (Fig. 7). Posttemporal
consists mostly of long, thin dorsal fork, curv-
ing backward somewhat, in manner not possi-
ble to show in Fig. 7, to resemble a sickle, lying
over dorsal corner of epiotic and separated
from posttemporal of opposite side only by ten-
don from supraoccipital. Strongly attached to
eplotic by a ligament, which extends forward
from its attachment to epiotic to lie flatly on
under side of posttemporal so that latter can be
drawn backward some little bit but can not be
pushed forward at all. It would thus aid some-
what in dissipating the thrust of the pectoral
fin to the cranium. Ventral fork of posttem-
poral short, blunt, and attached to opisthotic
by a fairly strong ligament.

Supracleithrum thin, pliable bone bearing
lateral line nerve on outer side in trough.
Whether this trough is an integral part of the
bone or a special ossification of the sensory
canal that has become securely fused to the
supracleithrum could not be determined. Clei-
thrum largest bone of girdle, ending dorsally
in long, sharp spike. Completely ligamentous
first rib attached to this and supracleithrum,
not only to bind girdle securely to axial skele-
ton but also to bind the two bones together.
Lateral-anterior face of bone broadened for in-
sertion of sternohyoideus muscle on outer sur-
face, and muscles of fin on inner surface.

Primary shoulder girdle attached flatly by
cartilage to inner surface of cleithrum and
curving away at angle of not more than 45°.
Both scapula and coracoid fairly large, but
neither very strongly ossified. Scapular fora-
men a mere elongated slit and entirely con-
tained within bone. Coracoid with similar
foramen of about same size and shape and an-
other, much smaller, opening near ventral end
of that. Anterior process of coracoid strong and

May 15, 1943

broad with V-shaped interosseus space be-
tween it and main part of bone. Posterior proc-
ess elongate and slender, projecting poste-
riorly well beyond actinosts. Posterior two-
thirds of this spike cartilaginous and pliable.
In one specimen this elongate projection was
either absent or unwittingly lost in dissection.
Four actinosts tiny, placed closely together and
all based on cartilage between scapula and cor-
acoid. No mesocoracoid or postcleithra.

PELVIC GIRDLE

Support of small pelvic fins slight and weak
(Fig. 8); consisting of a single, elongate tri-
angular bone on either side which tapers to a
point anteriorly. Except for posterior side of
triangle bone thin and pliable in spite of border
of heavier ossification along outer side. Pos-
terior edge thickened and cartilaginous for
support of fin rays. Mesially two prongs, ven-
tral and dorsal, project from thickened pos-
terior end to meet similar prongs of opposite
pelvic bone. Dorsal prong broad, completely
ossified, except for thin band of cartilage around
its edge of junction, and arching dorsomesially.
Two ventral prongs, slenderer and bluntly
pointed, meet mesially just under skin. For
mesial third of their length both are entirely
cartilaginous. Two pelvic bones rather weakly
joined together. ~

AXIAL SKELETON

Forty-two complete vertebrae plus single up-
turned terminal centrum present. First sem-
blance of haemal spine, a short, sharp stub to
which rib of each side attaches, occurs on six-
teenth vertebra. Spine of seventeenth vertebra
slender and about one-half as long as longest
haemal spine. That of eighteenth vertebra
longer yet and that of nineteenth of full length.
Sixteenth vertebra thus first caudal vertebra,
but anus placed back much farther, under
twenty-sixth vertebra. Rib of sixteenth verte-
bra of full length. Ribs also on seventeenth,
eighteenth, and nineteenth vertebrae. Each
somewhat shorter than one preceding until
that of nineteenth only about half length of
that of sixteenth vertebra. These last three ribs
very loosely attached by membranes to their
respective haemal spines. All ribs are exceed-
ingly slender and pliable and seem to give
slight protection to abdominal cavity.

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

155

Both epineurals and epipleurals present; all
scarcely thicker than muscle fibers. Last epi-
pleural noted posteriorly was on rib of six-
teenth vertebra and last epineural posteriorly
was on twentieth neural spine, but because of
their delicacy it cannot be securely stated that
they do not occur farther back on the caudal
vertebrae.

Centra all completely ossified, elongate,
slender, hour-glass shape. Parapophyses of pre-
caudal vertebrae, while broad, quite thin. Two
of each centrum not joined ventrally. A con-
siderable interspace between those of succeed-
ing centra. Ribs flattened and slightly broad-
ened on proximal ends and lying flat on external
side of parapophyses.

Neural spines, especially of first 13 vertebrae,
exceedingly slender and thin except for their
broadened proximal ends where they attach to
centra. Those of each side of a single centrum
do not touch, even at their filamentous distal
ends, on first 13 vertebrae. Those of fourteenth
and all succeeding vertebrae join and become
firmly ankylosed directly above spinal cord
and thus form a single spine. These spines con-
siderably heavier and stronger than those on
anterior vertebrae. About eight to ten times as
much of spinal cord exposed between succeed-
ing neural spines as covered by bases of slender
spines.

Nine interneurals between cranium and first
baseost of dorsal fin. Each of these except ninth
inserted between distal tips of succeeding
neural spines. Ninth lies in same interspace as
eighth, although with normal spacing between
them. It appears to have been crowded out of
its normal place by the enlarged, bifid, first
baseost of the dorsal fin. Each interneural
capped on either end with cartilage, heavier
than neural spine, well ossified, and approxi-
mately round in cross section. Between all in-
terneurals is developed an apparatus that the
writer has not seen so well developed in dis-
section of any other fish. This consists of a
rather strong ligament running from the distal
end of each interneural nearly ventrally to a
little below the middle of the next interneural
posteriorly. This is not a single ligament but is
made up of several fibers, some of which are
inserted on the cartilage cap, some on the bone
proper. This set of ligamentous connections be-
tween the interneurals unites them all into a

156

single apparatus starting with the broad liga-
ment between the supraoccipital and first inter-
neural, and attached lightly to the first baseost
of the dorsal fin. It has the effect of dispersing
any strain coming to the anterior member (the
cranium) throughout the entire apparatus.

No ribs, epineurals, or epipleurals on first
vertebra, and no interneural between first
neural spine and cranium. In place of a rib a
strong ligament of similar diameter as a normal
rib strongly attached to shoulder girdle (as
noted above). In my specimens ribs of second
vertebra fully developed and as large as any
others.

Eight baseosts for dorsal fin, each supporting
a fin ray. First longest and largest, bifid ven-
trally but reaching only to, and not straddling,
neural spine of tenth vertebra. Eighth very
small and consists of little more than distal
knob for insertion of fin ray. Other baseosts all
similar, differing only in becoming progres-
sively shorter from second to seventh. Each
bone ends distally in heavy knob and tapers
ventrally to slender proximal end. All latter
widely separate. Baseosts several times heavier
than corresponding neural spines. Distally
each baseost connected with next one pos-
teriorly by small hour-glass-shaped bone. Each
of these bones cupped on each end and each cup
lined with cartilage. Dorsal line of baseosts
thus solid and strong for support of fin, but
flexible by reason of 14 small ball and socket
joints.

HKighteen baseosts for anal fin presenting
flexible, but entire, line distally for support of
fin rays by reason of small hour-glass-shaped
ossicles between thickened heads of baseosts,
as in dorsal fin. Baseosts decrease gradually in
length posteriorly until eighteenth is httle more
than one-third length of first. All slenderer than
corresponding supports of dorsal fin. Little if
any support gained from slender haemal spines.
First baseost bears on its anterior edge, near
distal end, a cartilage capped knob to which are
attached by tendon two muscles which extend
along ventral line of abdomen to shoulder girdle
and help to anchor pelvic girdle in place.

Support of caudal fin rather weakly de-
veloped. Small dorsal rays of fin extend an-
teriorly to level of neural spine of thirty-sixth
vertebra. Neural spines of last six vertebrae
extend to proximal ends of fin rays, very

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VOL. 33, NO. 5

slender, and in no way differentiated for sup-
port of rays. Condition essentially the same
ventrally except that haemal spine of forty-
second vertebra somewhat broadened and
thickened distally and covered by cap of carti-
lage over distal edge of hypural plate to actively
support fin. Haemal spine of forty-first and
fortieth vertebrae also slightly thickened but
lend little support to fin.

None of elements of hypural plate fused to-
gether and considerable interosseus spaces left
between some. Terminal centrum cone shaped
and with pointed end turned upward slightly.
Slender, cartilaginous urostyle extends dorso-
posteriorly into fin rays as in Novwmbra (Chap-
man, 1934) and other fishes. Neural spine of
terminal centrum, while thin and weak, widely
broadened to fill most of space between last
neural spines and urostyle, and covers base of
latter. Further dorsally a slender rod of bone
lies along upper side of urostyle until latter
reaches fin rays. This bone tipped with carti-
lage distally. Lower side of urostyle sheathed
with still another thin bone on which upper
three hypurals inserted. Lower four hypurals
based on ventral side of terminal centrum. All
hypurals capped with cartilage distally and, in
addition, with a continuous band of cartilage
from urostyle to haemal spine of forty-second
vertebra over which proximal ends of fin rays
actually ride. Flanges on neural and haemal
spines of last several vertebrae shown by Beebe
(1933, fig. 41) not present in my specimens.

VISCERA

Stomach J-shaped, large, with very thick
walls and covered externally with black pig-
ment. Internally closely packed, deep, thin
folds almost fill lumen of stomach so that little
space left inside in proportion to size of organ.
It is possible, however, that this is capable of
considerable expansion, for the stomach of the
only specimen cut into was completely empty
except for minute flaky particles that could not
be identified.

Five pyloric caeca, three moderately good
sized, one smaller, and one very short and small.
One of larger ones and medium sized one come
off ventral side of pyloric region together,
former curving upward and posteriorly along
left side of pyloric end of stomach, latter curv-
ing to right and running anteriorly along py-

May 15, 1943

loric region. Other three caeca come off right
side of pyloric region and lie between it and in-
testine. Anterior one only a short bud; other
two projecting posteriorly, with largest one
curving across ventral side of pyloric end of
stomach to extend along left side.

Somewhat in advance of pyloric caeca in-
testine flexes to right and continues straight
posteriorly to anus. Anterior two-thirds of in-
testine rather thin-walled and flabby; lined
internally with irregular small folds, which do
not project far into lumen and which block off
wall into shallow crypts of irregular shape.
About two-thirds of remaining third of intes-
tine turgid and nearly cylindrical. It contains a
typical spiral valve almost identical in size and
shape with that shown by Kendall and Craw-
ford (1922) for Argentina. Organ obviously
functional and well developed, not vestigial
remnant occasionally found in salmon. Spirals
made up of spongy, thickened walls with con-
tours as evident in external view as in Squalus.
Remainder of alimentary tract pigmented, al-
though not so heavily as stomach, and may be
termed the rectum, although little different in
circumference from spiral valve section.

Specimen examined a female with well-
developed eggs. Both ovaries full of eggs and
of about same size, with right extending only
little more posteriorly than left. Ovaries lay
along dorsal side of stomach and nearly enclose
intestine clear to rectum. Two sizes of eggs
present: larger size about 0.5 millimeter in
diameter. Number of large eggs not counted
with accuracy but estimated that two ovaries
together contained less than 3,000.

Only right lobe of liver present in three speci-
mens examined, but this well developed and
covering large part of left surface of stomach.
Spherical, translucent gall bladder exactly as
found in Macropinna (Chapman, 1942b). In
one specimen liver notched on ventral edge and
gall bladder fitting snugly in this notch over
bend of intestine. In another specimen liver
covers gall bladder from external view but a
bulge in its surface shows presence of bladder
in same location.

Kidney similar to that of Macropinna; light .

gray in color and shot through with small black
specks. No indication of double structure.
No air bladder (as in Macropinna).

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

157

SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF LEUROGLOSSUS
GILBERT

Dr. George 8. Myers has kindly provided
me with one of Gilbert’s specimens of
Leuroglossus stilbius. The specimen is small
and soft, and the bones are so lightly os-
sified that they did not take up the stain
readily. Therefore it was not possible to
give a complete account of its osteology.
Definitely there are no mesocoracoids, no
postcleithra, and no air bladder. There are
only two branchiostegal rays. All osteo-
logical charactersthat can be clearly defined,
such as the ethmoid and suspensorium areas
(with the mouth parts and vomer), are as in
Bathylagus. However, the liver is somewhat
bilobed; there is a distinct kink in the in-
testine behind the greater omentum and the
intestine is longer than in Bathylagus; there
are 12 pyloric caeca all in a straight line and
the whole of the alimentary tract is enfolded
dorsally and ventrally in a double organ
which I believe is the greatly enlarged (in
proportion to the size of the fish) male sex
organs. Because of the above noted char-
acters of the viscera the generic rank should
be retained until more complete study indi-
cates otherwise. Leuroglossus should be re-
moved from the Argentinidae and placed in
the Bathylagidae.

The counts and measurements (in milli-
meters) of my specimen (Albatross station
2904: 1889, southern California) are as fol-
lows: anal, 11; dorsal, 10; pectorals, 9;
ventrals, 9; caudal, 48. Snout to base of
caudal, 48; snout to origin of dorsal, 273;
snout to insertion of ventrals, 29; snout to
anal, 38; snout to adipose, 403; length of
head, 17; diameter of eye, 6; depth at pec-
toral insertion, 83; length of caudal pedun-
cle, 6; and length of snout, 44 mm.

SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THEROBROMUS
LUCAS

Lucas (1899) described the species Thero-
bromus callorhinus from bones found abun-
dantly in the stomachs of fur seals in Bering
Sea. No intact specimens were available to
him, and the species has never been taken
alive, nor have specimens been recorded
since his original description. He says of it:

158

‘‘an undescribed isospondylous fish related
to the Argentinidae.’’ It has since been re-
ferred to the Osmeridae by Jordan, Ever-
mann, and Clark (1930) and Hubbs (1925),
but a study of the osteology of the osmerid
fishes (Chapman, 1941b) showed that the
species was not closely related to those
fishes and could not be placed in that family.

Lucas says of the fish: ‘‘The species may
be diagnosed as follows: Chondrocranium
well developed; superior maxillary edentu-
lous; pointed teeth on vomer and anterior
portion of palatines; lower jaw very deep;
pointed teeth on dentary; articular well de-
veloped. Vertebral formula 26 precaudals,
22 caudals, plus 1 hypural; last 4 precaudals
with short, wide hypapophyses: other hypa-
pophyses long; neural spines of first 22
vertebrae double, remainder confluent; an
epineural present and confluent with basal
part of neurapophysis on many of the an-
terior vertebrae; short transverse processes,
directed downward from lower part of an-
terior vertebrae. Vertebrae simple; anterior
but very little shorter than the posterior;
centra not sculptured, but bearing many
fine longitudinal ridges.’”” The short de-
scription was accompanied by a plate of 19
drawings of bones.

The description, except for the number of
vertebrae, could have been as correctly

drawn from the specimens of Bathylagus ‘

used as the basis for the present report. The
_ drawings likewise are accurate representa-
tions of Bathylagus. The chief differences
between Lucas’s drawings and those in the
present report are the result of his specimen
being partially digested, and the resem-
blances are so striking that no detailed de-
scription is necessary. The frontals in his
specimen, for instance, are gone; part of the
opercle is digested away; and part of the
hypural plate is gone. The vertebral count
given in the description of Therobromus
by Lueas will aid in identifying his species
when specimens of Bathylagus from the
Bering Sea are available for dissection.
Probably his fish was B. pacificus or B.
alascanus.

The discovery that the fur seal feeds ex-
tensively on fishes of the genus Bathylagus
is interesting because this genus in the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 5

North Pacific is typically bathypelagic in
habitat, indicating that the fur seal feeds
at greater depths than is generally recog-
nized. It may be noted that the chief feeding
grounds of the fur seal while on the rookeries
both on the Pribilof and Komandorskie
Islands is outside the 100-fathom contour
(Townsend, 1899).

SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF BATHYLAGUS

The affinities of the Bathylagidae are not
so close to the salmonoid fishes as is gener-
ally supposed. Together with the Argen-
tinidae, Microstomidae, Macropinnidae,
Opisthoproctidae, Winteriidae, Xenoph-
thalmichthyidae, and, probably, certain
other deep sea fishes, they form a natural
group that may be designated as a suborder
in the Isospondyli, the Opisthoproctoidei,
erected by Berg (1937) for the Opisthoproc-
tidae alone.

Of the fishes with which Bathylagus has
been associated in the past it resembles Ar-
gentina least. Argentina (Chapman, 1942a)
has a well-developed mesocoracoid; a single
row of about 30 teeth on the palatine;
several heavy recurved teeth on the tongue;
small teeth on the fifth ceratobranchial and
fourth suprabranchial; the air bladder is
large and well developed; there are seven
branchiostegal rays; well-developed post-
cleithra (there are four in my specimen, al-
though Kendall and Crawford (1922) say
no ‘‘postclavicular’” processes are found);
the myodome is well developed and opens
posteriorly on the basioccipital; the parie-
tals are broadly joined on the midline,
nearly occluding the supraoccipital from
dorsal view, and form bony bridges across
the temporal fossae laterally ; and the supra-
occipital is broadly separate from the fron-
tals. In view of these differences, and others,
Bathylagus can not be placed in the Ar-
gentinidae.

There are stronger resemblances with
Microstoma, but that genus has an especially
large and prominent air bladder; four
branchiostegal rays; well-developed post-
cleithra; the parietals meet broadly on the
midline of the skull; and there are numerous
differences in the proportions and arrange-
ments of the bones of the skull, in particular

May 15, 1943

the special ossifications of the sensory sys-
tem and the bones of the ethmoid region.
For these and other reasons Bathylagus can
not be considered to be a member of the
Microstomidae.

Bathylagus is the representative of a
separate family, Bathylagidae (Gill, 1884),
to which also belongs Leuroglossus (Gilbert,
1890). Bathymacrops (Gilchrist, 1922),
which Jordan (1923) has placed in the
Bathylagidae, should be placed in the
Microstomidae as a synonym of Nansenia.

SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILY BATHYLAGIDAE

Opisthoproctoid fishes with adipose fin
and enlarged but laterally directed eyes.
Supraorbital bones strongly developed and
suborbital bones weakly developed. Mouth
small. No teeth on tongue, gill arches, pre-
maxillary or maxillary. Teeth on palatine
absent or few. Small conical teeth on the
vomer and dentary. Mesopterygoid much
enlarged but not toothed. Metapterygoid
minute, if present. Frontals paired. Both
mesethmoid and ventral ethmoid present.
Small suprabasal present on basibranchials.
Parietals small and widely separated by
supraoccipital, which reaches frontals. No
definite temporal fossae. No myodome. No
mesocoracoid. No postcleithra. Two (as far
as known) branchiostegal rays. Gill mem-
branes broadly united. Pectoral and ventral
fins small and placed near the ventral out-
line. Pseudobranchiae well developed. Py-
loric caeca few (9 to 12 in Leuroglossus, 5 or
6 in Bathylagus). Peritoneum and stomach
jet black. Air bladder completely absent.
Stomach with prominent leaflike projec-
tions internally. Intestine short, with well-
developed spiral valve.

LITERATURE CITED

BARNARD, KeppEL Harcourt. <A monograph
of the marine fishes of South Africa, pt. 1.
Ann. South African Mus. 21: 1-418, pls.
1-17, figs. 1-18. 1925.

BEEBE, WILLIAM. Deep sea fishes of the Ber-
muda Oceanographic Expeditions. No. 8.
Argentinidae. Zoologica 16 (3): 97-147,
figs. 26-46. 1933.

Bere, Lzro Srmonovircu. A_ classtfication
of fish-like vertebrates. Bull. Acad. Sci.
URSS.: 1277-1280. 1937.

Classification of fishes, both recent and

CHAPMAN: OSTEOLOGY OF BATHYLAGUS

159

fossil. Trav. Inst. Zool. Acad. Sci. URSS.
5 (2): 87-517, figs. 1-90. 1940.

CuapMAN, WILBERT McLeop. The osteology
of the haplomous fish, Novumbra hubbsi
Schultz, with notes on related species.
Journ. Morph. 56: 371-405, figs. 1-8.
1934.

Eleven new species and three new
genera of oceanic fishes collected by the In-
ternational Fisheries Commission from the
northeastern Pacific. Proc. U. 8. Nat.
Mus. 86: 501-542, figs. 58-70. 1939.
Oceanic fishes from the northeast
Pacific Ocean. Occ. Pap. British Colum-
bia Prov. Mus. 2: 1-44. 1940. -

The osteology and relationships of the

isospondylous fish Plecoglossus altivelis

Temminck and Schlegel. Journ. Morph.

68: (3): 425-455, figs. 1-12. 1941a.

The osteology and relationships of the

osmerid fishes. Journ. Morph. 69 (2):

279-301, figs. 1-15. 1941b.

The osteology and relationships of the

Argentinidae, a family of oceanic fishes.

Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 32 (4): 104—

117, 8 figs. 1942a.

The osteology and relationship of the
bathypelagic fish Macropinna microstoma
Chapman, with notes on its visceral anato-
my. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 11, 9: 272
—304, 9 figs. 1942b.

Davin, Lore. Muocene fishes in well cores from
Torrance in southern Calzfornia. Bull.
Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 24 (12): 2182-
2184. 1940.

Fowier, Henry WreED. The marine fishes of
West Africa. Pt. II. Bull. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist. 70 (2): 607-1493, figs. 276-567.
1936.

GILBERT, CHARLES HENRY. A preliminary re-
port on the fishes collected by the steamer
‘‘Albatross” on the Pacific coast of North
America during the year 1889, etc. Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 13: 49-126.

GitcurisT, J. D. F. Deep sea fishes procured
by the S. S. “‘Pickle.”? Rept. Fish. Marine
Biol. Surv. South Africa 2: 41-79, pls. 7-12.
1922.

GiLL, THropore Nicuouas. The ichthyo-
logical peculiarities of the Bassaltan fauna.
Science 3 (68): 620-622. 1884.

GoopE, GEORGE Brown, and Bran, TARLETON
HorrMan. Oceanic ichthyology. U. S.
Nat. Mus. Spec. Bull. 2: 1-553. 1895.

GUNTHER, ALBERT. Preliminary notices of
deep-sea fishes collected during the voyage of
H.M.S. “Challenger.” Ann: Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 5, 2: 248-251. 1878.

Huspss, Cart Leavitt. A reviston of the os-
merid fishes of the North Pacvfic. Proce.
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JORDAN, Davip Starr. A classification of
fishes including families and genera as far

160

as known. Stanford Univ. Publ. Biol. Sci.

3 (2): 79-2438. 1923.

and EveRMANN, BarToN WARREN.

The fishes of North and Middle America.

U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47: 1-1240. 1896.

, EVERMANN BarToN WARREN, and

Cuark, Howarp Watton. Check list of

the fishes and fishlike vertebrates of North

and Middle America north of the northern

boundary of Venezuela. Rept. U. 5.

Comm. Fish. App. pt. 2: 1-670. 1930.

and GILBERT, JAMES ZACCHEUS. Fos-
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fishes of the Miocene (Monterey) forma-
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38) (2) 3 O0F OLg:

Fossil fishes of diatom beds of
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KENDALL, WILLIAM C., and CRawForD, Don-
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of some skeletal and other characters. Journ.
Washington Acad. Sci. 12: 8-19, figs. 1-2.
1922.

Lucas, Freperic A. The fishes of Bering Sea.
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NorMAN, JOHN RoxBorouGH. - Oceanic fishes
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VOL. 33, NO. 5

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1930.

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(1-58) 193m

Concluding report on fishes. Bull.
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TREWEVAS, ETHELWYNN. On the structure of
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Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 19338, 2 (81):

ABBREVIATIONS USED ON FIGURES

AC =actinost E =epilotic

AL =alisphenoid EC =ethmoid carti-

AN =angular lage

AR =articular EP =epihyal

B =hbasioccipital EX =exoccipital

BB =basibranchial F =frontal

BR =branchiostegal FM =foramen mag-
ray num

CB =ceratobranchial, G = glossohyal

CE =ceratohyal H =hyomandibular

CL =cleithrum HB =hypobranchial

CO =coracoid I =interhyal

D =dentary IN =uinteropercle

DH =dorsalhypohyal M =maxillary

601-614, figs. 1-8. 19383.

ME =mesethmoid PT =pterotic

MES = mesopterygoid PTT =posttemporal

MET =metapterygoid Q =quadrate

O =opercle S =symplectic

OR =orbitosphenoid SB =suprabasal

P = parietal SC =supracleithrum

PA =palatine SCA =scapula

PAR =parasphenoid SO =supraoccipital

PF =prefrontal SOP =subopercle

PG =pterygoid SP =sphenotic

PM =premaxillary V =vomer

POP =preopercle VE =ventral ethmoid

POT =prootic VH =ventral hypo-
hyal

_ AstRoPHystcs, —The physical chemistry
Notting. 150%)

Mae See

_ Borany. —Homonyms among names: oF trees a d
| BERT L. Lirtie, iva Pe ae |

‘

eae AunxanpEn Wemvorr aa

IcnrHyouocy. —The ee and Bele ci of th

ase A

_ fishes: of the Benue OL out ne

‘This Journal is ae ee er va us

Tee OF EDITORS

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"daellve EDITORS Baie ihiatie iyee e, ee
her yp ee W. MugsEBECK |

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

ECOLOGY.—Progress in utilization standards for western ranges.

BELL, U.S. Forest Service.

Range utilization is essential to the wel-
fare of the West and of the United States as
a whole. The western range territory pro-
vides one-third of the cattle and calves, two-
. thirds of the sheep, and three-fourths of the
wool and mohair grown in the United States.
These livestock products are important even
in ordinary times. They are indispensable
during war. Because of the huge armed
force, millions of war workers at strenuous
toil, and lend-lease aid to the Allies, the
country each year is using double its domes-
tic wool production, and civilian meat con-
sumption has been cut by more than one-
third in order to balance consumption with
supply.

Within the western range territory the
animals producing these requisite supplies
graze part or ali of the year on range forage
—on the grasses, other herbs, and shrubs
growing in a generally rather thin stand on
land best suited to use by domestic live-
stock. The area devoted to this use is about
728,000,000 acres, nearly two-fifths of the
entire United States. The harvesting of the
edible portions of this plant growth each
year requires careful management to pre-
vent excessive damage to the range re-
source and to permit sustained production
of forage and livestock.

Range management is the regulation,
direction, and control of grazing with the
object of the fullest possible use of the for-
age resource consistent with other range
land uses. Man’s main control is over the

1 Paper delivered upon receipt of award for dis-
tinguished service in the biological sciences at the
318th meeting of the Washington Academy of

Se March 18, 1948. Received March 27,
943.

161

JUNE 15, 1943

No. 6

R. 8. Camp-

(Communicated by W. R. CHAPLINE.)

livestock; hence the four principal features
of range management are: the most ap-
propriate kind of animals, correct seasonal
use, even distribution of grazing, and proper
numbers of livestock. The other three
features of management are most effective
only when numbers of livestock are correct
—thus indicating the importance of proper
utilization of the range forage each year.
Utilization standards is a term employed
to designate a wide variety of information
needed by the range manager in understand-
ing and currently judging the utilization
and the relative condition or productivity
of the range. Utilization is a complex prob-
lem, dealing with hundreds of valuable
forage plants of several life forms growing
on ranges from the high rainfall mountain
lands down to low value semidesert shrub
areas. Involved are several stages of plant
succession, considerable differences between
species as to the relish with which they are
eaten by livestock at different seasons, re-
sistance to grazing and processes of growth,

' maintenance, and reproduction. In fact, the

whole field of range plant and animal ecol-
ogy is involved. The job in range utilization
standards is to work out answers to some
of the more pressing problems of forage
utilization by livestock, to take advantage
of findings from other pertinent studies,
and to formulate the essential results into
simple, readily applicable facts for use by
busy range administrators and managers.
The purpose of this paper is to describe
some of the recent advances in this field.

A considerable body of range manage-
ment information, much of it relating to
utilization, has been accumulated during

Ly,
A?

162

the past few decades. The U. 8S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture has been interested in
range problems since its establishment in
1862, and early-day studies of forage plants,
reseeding, and grazing brought together
helpful facts on the nature and extent of the
resource. National-forest range-manage-
ment studies, begun in 1907 by James T.
Jardine (1910) and A. W. Sampson (1909),
in cooperation with F. V. Coville, of
the Bureau of Plant Industry, gradually
brought together biological facts on the
grazing habits and forage requirements of
range sheep and cattle, and the growth and
use of range forage. These early studies, in-
cluding both the range vegetation and live-
stock grazing, led quickly into practical
management features such as the bedding
out system of handling sheep, water de-
velopment, correct seasonal grazing, de-
ferred and rotation grazing, and forage in-
ventory through range surveys.

Increasing attention was given the prob-
lem of forage utilization until in 1986 a
special project was started, primarily to
develop improved utilization standards for
application on the 87,000,000 acres of na-
tional-forest range (Campbell, 1937). It
was undertaken by the Division of Range
Research and the six western forest and
range experiment stations and administra-
tive regions. The immediate job was to
evaluate all pertinent data and formulate
the best possible standards, mainly in hand-
book form, for immediate use. At the same
time the whole utilization problem was care-
fully analyzed for the most urgent questions.
By 1989, the project turned toward research
primarily ecological. The work aimed at
these important problems was seriously re-
stricted by limited funds. This work was
only in its initial stages when wartime de-
mands for livestock products dictated an
immediate program to furnish the best
available standards to help both public and
private agencies attain maximum sustained
production.

The subject of utilization standards can
best be presented under two broad headings:
(1) range condition, including changes and
trends in condition; and (2) range utiliza-
tion, including methods of measurement
and the determination of proper utilization.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

RANGE CONDITION

Range condition is the relative state of
health or productivity of the range, includ-
ing both the soil and the forage, in relation
to its potential state and the best practicable
management. The inclusion of information
on range condition in utilization standards —
requires answers to such basic questions as
the following:

1. What are the main range types for
which utilization standards are needed?

2. What should be the objective toward
which management of each type should aim
(in terms of plant cover and soil condition)?

3. What annual or seasonal variations
are there in habitat and plant cover that
can be recognized in the field?

The answers to these questions draw on
practically all phases of range ecology, from
vegetation surveys to studies of plant com-
petition and succession. Broad vegetation
types include the tall grass, shortgrass,
Pacific bunchgrass, semidesert grass, sage-
brush, ete., within which are important sub-
types requiring individual consideration.
Thus, within the open forest type are such
important subtypes as the ponderosa pine
bunchgrass, the alpine grassland, aspen-fir,
mountain brush, and others.

The early studies of Sampson (1919) on
plant succession in relation to range man-
agement furnished a working method of
setting up the objective toward which man-
agement should aim on a specific type. He
identified four vegetation types or stages
that feature plant succession from a de-
pleted condition on subalpine grasslands in
central Utah; (1) early-maturing annuals
growing on gravelly loam poor in organic
matter and moisture; (2) perennial herbs,
on soil containing moderate amounts of or-
ganic matter and moisture; (3) aggressive
perennial grasses with herbs and shrubs on
soil with still better organic and moisture
content; and (4) deep-rooted or densely
tufted perennial grasses on fine soil high
in organic matter and available mois-
ture. Sampson determined that overgrazing
caused retrogression by destroying the
ground cover and allowing loss of soil fer-
tility. He also found that grassland in
climax condition furnishes abundant forage,
withstands grazing better, and has more

JUNE 15, 1943 CAMPBELL: UTILIZATION STANDARDS FOR WESTERN RANGES

stable soil than when it is in the lower de-
velopmental stages.

More recently Pickford and Reid (1942),

working on subalpine grasslands in north-
eastern Oregon, identified stages similar to
those of Sampson. They found that the
climax stage is characterized by stable,
fertile soil, ample desirable forage, and uni-
form, silt-free streamflow. Green fescue
(Festuca viridula) is dominant, covering at
least half the ground surface.
' Subalpine ranges in the mixed grass and
weed stage are in only fair condition, since
they produce less than the maximum
amount of forage and their watershed values
are impaired. They have an open stand of
vegetation that rarely covers more than
one-third of the ground surface. Subclimax
grasses are abundant and compete success-
fully with better forage species for available
soil moisture. Weeds are common and ac-
celerated erosion is conspicuous on exposed
soil surfaces and pedestaled fescue tus-
socks.

A still poorer condition is represented by
the second weed stage, in which the stand
of vegetation is very open and green fescue
is represented only by scant remnant plants.
Low value weeds and shrubs are abundant,
and the soil is clearly eroded, with deep
gullies on hillsides and cut channels.

The importance of maintaining ranges
in good condition is shown by the grazing
capacity of the various stages. Grazing
capacity of the near climax green fescue
stage, having good soil condition, was more
than four times that of ranges in the poor
condition represented by lower stages.

Similar stages and corresponding grazing
values have been worked out in greater or
less detail for several other important types
or subtypes throughout the West.

TREND OF RANGE CONDITION

The range manager must know whether
his management is bettering the condition
and increasing the forage production of his
range, or causing it to go on the downgrade.
Range trend is the direction and amount of
change in range condition. Much of the
range land of the West is in some stage of
depletion, varying from slight to very
severe. The problem of first importance on

163

these deteriorated ranges is to stop the
retrogression and start the process of im-
provement. With the widely varying degree
of deterioration of vegetation and soil on
different ranges, the determination of range
trend is not simple. Improvement or de-
terioration can be recognized from such
features as the vigor of the principal forage
species, the species reproducing and becom-
ing established, and character of soil erosion.
But it requires extraordinary alertness and
ingenuity in the field of dynamic ecology
to detect incipient changes and particularly
to interpret the natural changes due to
variable weather, and to evaluate such
changes along with those caused by live-
stock grazing. For example, broom snake-
weed (Gutterrezia sarothrae) is a low-growing
aggressive shrub with little or no forage
value. It has been shown that the occur-
rence of a dense stand of young thrifty
snakeweed plants on range where the pala-
table black grama (Bouteloua eriopoda) has
been weakened by overgrazing, represents
a definite downward trend (Campbell and
Bomberger, 1934). Both the snakeweed and
the black grama may be injured by drought,
but through careful utilization of the valu-
able grass, deterioration can be stopped,
and at this stage recovery need not be
difficult nor require more than a few
years.

On the other hand, the invasion of a
dense stand of snakeweed on a badly de-
pleted, wind-blown, honey-mesquite (Pro-
sopis glandulosa), sand-dune type repre-
sents a definite upward trend through stabi-
lizing and building up the soil and affording
protection for better forage plants ulti-
mately to grow. Ranges that have reached
this low ebb of productivity require many
decades to restore a grass stand of reason-
ably good productivity. However, the oc-
currence of dense stands of such low value
plants as snakeweed is not the final criterion
of range condition—it is only one of many
important features that must be interpreted
in the aggregate.

Advanced deterioration is rather easily
recognized by the thin stand of perennial
grasses and obviously accelerated erosion,
but the early symptoms of deterioration are
more difficult to detect. Some of the more

164

striking signs of a deteriorating range de-
veloped to date include: (1) weakened
vitality of the important forage plants, as
shown by sickly color and reduced height
and volume; (2) thinning of the perennial
grass cover as indicated by accelerated dy-
ing out and disintegrating of tufts; (3) re-
placement of good forage plants with poor
ones, as indicated by abundance of young
inferior plants; and (4) accelerating erosion,
as evidenced by soil washing on slopes, a
distinct increase in number of recent small
pencil or finger gullies, and failure of vegeta-
tion to grow in small gullies.

In general, an upward trend is indicated
by: , :

1. Arresting of accelerated erosion, peren-
nial vegetation established on eroded banks
of drainage channels, no exposed grass roots,
soil pedestals with sloping rather than verti-
cal sides, and root crowns of perennial
grasses not buried with silt, ete.

2. Vigorous appearance of the stand of
forage plants.

3. Noticeable reproduction or spread of
plants of the next higher succession stage.

4. Exposed mineral soil colonized with
young plants of perennial species.

These and other indicators have been
worked out more specifically for several
types in the West, but a great deal more re-
mains to be done, both on other types and
on more accurate and reliable indicators of
range trend.

FACTORS INFLUENCING UTILIZATION

A thorough knowledge of forage utiliza-
tion is essential because livestock grazing
is a major influence in causing the great dif-
ferences in values between ranges in good
and poor condition. Among the important
factors influencing forage utilization are the
kind and number of livestock; their eating
habits; their forage preferences involving
succulence, taste, and other qualities of the
forage plants; the season of use, the plant
composition, and the distribution of live-
stock over the range.

As to kind of livestock, cattle generally
prefer grasses and shrubs, and horses choose
grass, while sheep and goats prefer weeds
and browse plants, although all animals like

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

some variety in their diet. Soil disturbance
through trampling also varies with the ani-
mals and particularly with their handling.
Thus, poor herding of sheep in compact,
fast-moving bands can cause serious over-
utilization and trampling, whereas open
herding and gentle handling can utilize
most ranges without serious damage.

Season of grazing is very important in
securing utilization of plants when they are
palatable. For example, in the Southwest
tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica) is good forage
during summer when it is green and suc-
culent, but after that time it becomes so
dry and woody that livestock do not graze
it willingly. Correct season of grazing is also
very important in allowing the main forage
plants ample opportunity to grow and re-
produce. Craddock and Forsling (1938)
found in southern Idaho that the start of
growth on sagebrush-grass ranges was far
too variable to allow grazing to begin then.
They found a minimum variation in the
time when perennial grasses reached a 2-
inch height growth and recommended be-
ginning grazing at that stage of develop-
ment so as to assure suflicient available for-
age for the livestock and to permit the for-
age growth to keep ahead of the sheep
grazing.

The effect of a number of factors on uti-
lization of black grama by cattle is brought
out in a 7-year study on several thousand
acres of the Jornada Experimental Range
in southern New Mexico. By means of
multiple regressions applied to nearly 750
measurements, it was found that percent
height utilization of black grama varied
significantly with intensity of pasture stock-
ing and distance from livestock water (Fig.
1). The average effect of each additional
mile from a livestock watering place was a
decrease of 10 percent in utilization of
black grama, out to a maximum distance
studied of 3.5 miles. When black grama in
a pasture was fully utilized on the average,
it was overutilized out to 2 miles from water.
Under moderate or conservative pasture
grazing, the grama was grazed too closely
only out to half a mile from water, and
rather lightly beyond 3 miles. With light
pasture use, the black grama was utilized
very lightly at 2 miles from water and was

JUNE 15, 1943 CAMPBELL: UTILIZATION STANDARDS FOR WESTERN RANGES

too closely grazed only in the first one-fourth
mile from water.

The effect of distance from salt grounds
on utilization of black grama was not great
—averaging only 1.3 percent utilization
per mile. But improved salting in a properly
stocked individual pasture increased the
utilization of black grama as much as 10 to
15 percent at 3 miles or more from water.

Other factors were also important. There
was higher utilization of black grama near
the main roads and well-traveled trails.
Also black-grama utilization on the average
increased 4 percent for each 0.1 decrease in

UTILIZATION BLACK GRAMA (PERCENT)

w
[o)

165

DETERMINING PROPER UTILIZATION

Research has employed a number of
ways to get at proper utilization which is
really the heart of utilization standards. The
maintenance of black grama on meter
quadrats on range grazed to different degrees
was measured by Nelson (1934) on the
Jornada Experimental Range. On ungrazed
plots, there was a considerable change in
tuft area, increasing or decreasing from one
year to the next in response to the rainfall
of the preceding summer. Further, the
average density of black grama over a 13-
year period under conservative or moderate

—-— — Interpolated

DISTANCE FROM WATER (MILES)

Fig. 1—Average utilization of black grama by cattle in percent
height at different distances from water under full, conservative or
moderate, and light pasture utilization, Jornada Experimental
Range, southern New Mexico, 1931 to 1937, inclusive.

black grama density after allowing for other
factors. Thin stands or scattered plants of
black grama were fully utilized out to 3 or 4
miles from water, with only moderate pas-
ture stocking. This brings out the impor-
tance of protecting and managing the
utilization of the important forage species
on depleted types, if they are to be restored
to their potential productivity.

Similar studies of important factors in-
fluencing utilization on pine bunchgrass
range in northern Arizona by Glendening,
and on mountain bunchgrass range in
central Utah by Clark, are as yet unpub-
lished.

grazing was little different from that under
no grazing. Slight overuse of black grama
in dry years prevented maximum develop-
ment of the stand and permitted inferior
associated grasses and weeds to secure a
foothold on the depleted grama areas.
Heavy overgrazing year after year prac-
tically killed out the black grama stand
and caused very unstable soil conditions.
Under moderate grazing, sufficient plant
stubble and stolons remained each year to
assure good growth and reproduction of the
stand the next year.

Persistent clipping of all black grama
herbage on plots to a 2-inch height or less

166

over a 10-year period was found by Canfield
(1939) to result in greatly reduced yield and
eventually destroyed or killed the plants.
In similar studies on clipped tobosa-grass
plots, cropping to 2 inches was too close,
but clipping to 4 inches maintained a high
forage yield and stimulated vegetative re-
production.

Clark, at the Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station, working with
slender wheatgrass (Agropyron trachycau-
lum) and mountain brome (Bromus cari-
natus) on the Wasatch Plateau in central
Utah, has marked individual plants grazed
to different degrees and has followed the
forage production and utilization through
subsequent years. He has noted a tendency
for the sheep to come back and graze closely
the younger smaller plants each year. This
suggests that on some ranges utilization
may need to be measured on the younger
plants rather than the entire stand, in order
to perpetuate the important forage species.

Still another approach to proper utiliza-
tion was followed by McCarty and Price
(1942) who studied the growth and carbo-
hydrate content of important perennial
grasses and broadleaf herbs on central Utah
mountain ranges. Critical periods in the life
cycle were found to be: (1) the active repro-
ductive period from flowerstalk formation
through seed ripening, and (2) during the
early carbohydrate storage period, when the
plant is in a period of recuperation from the
reproductive period. A system of rotation
grazing in which portions of the range are
grazed at a different time each year allows
a periodic slackening in the intensity of
grazing during these periods in the plants’
life processes.

It is not a simple task to express these
findings for practical application on the
range. One common way is to describe the
stubble height that should be left ungrazed
for the important forage species. Studies
both in the Northwest and in the Southwest
show a considerable proportion of ungrazed
plants on properly grazed range. Still an-
other way of defining proper use is in per-
centage of herbage removal.

The difficulty with any statement of
proper utilization, whether expressed in
stubble height or in percentage removal, is

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

that extreme care is needed in applying it
to any area other than where it was de-
veloped. Weakened forage plants on de-
teriorated ranges can not resist the same
degree of utilization as thrifty vigorous
plants on ranges in good condition. Ordi-
narily the better forage plants should be
grazed less on deteriorated range in order to
hasten restoration. Also, they should be
used less on steep slopes, particularly on
more erosive soils. :

UTILIZATION DROPSEEDS (PERCENT)

UTILIZATION-BLACKGRAMA (PERCENT)

Fig. 2.—Average utilization of sand and mesa
dropseeds by cattle at various degrees of utiliza-
tion of black grama in percent height as deter-
mined at the end of the grazing year in June,
Jornada Experimental Range, 1931 to 1937, in-
clusive.

In the final proper use rating, the key
forage plants are assigned values mainly on
their resistance to grazing, including ability
to survive drought and normal competition,
and with due allowance for other factors.
Less important species are rated at the de-
gree to which they are actually grazed when
the key species are properly utilized. This
is illustrated in the curve of utilization
found between black grama and sand and
mesa dropseeds (Sporobolus cryptandrus and
S. flecuosus), less valuable species (Fig. 2).
When the black grama was grazed at about
85 percent or proper on this scale, the
dropseeds were grazed about 65 percent of
their height.

JUNE 15, 1943 CAMPBELL: UTILIZATION STANDARDS FOR WESTERN RANGES

All these results find direct application in
the control of livestock grazing on the range.
But intelligent control of numbers and dis-
tribution of animals on the range requires
careful checks of actual forage utilization.

MEASURING RANGE UTILIZATION

Several methods of measuring range uti-
lization have been developed, suited to vari-
ous purposes and types of vegetation. The
most common method now employed by
range administrators is the so-called recon-
naissance or ocular inspection system, in
which the range is systematically examined
and the utilization estimated directly, either
in descriptive terms or preferably in per-
centage herbage removal. Frequent close
examination of individual plants on small
areas a few square feet in size is necessary
for reasonable accuracy.

A more accurate way is the ocular esti-
mate by plot method described by Pechanec
and Pickford (1937), who tested a number
of methods in southern Idaho. The examiner
estimates percentage weight removal of
herbage from forage species on a series of
circular plots each containing 100 square
feet. In training, ungrazed vegetation on
plots is clipped and weighed, the utilization
estimated, then the balance clipped and
weighed as a check until the examiner can
judge utilization with reasonable accuracy.
This method has been found admirably
suited for research purposes on grasses,
weeds, and browse. Pickford, working in the
Northwest, has recently tested the method
as an administrative tool on national-forest
ranges. Proposed standardized instructions
for its application are being considered in
the several Western Regions of the Forest
Service.

Another method of determining utiliza-
tion that has found widespread application
is the use of grass height-weight or volume
tables. The height of grazed stubble is ex-
pressed in percent and converted to per-
centage weight utilization by means of
charts or scales showing height-weight rela-
tionships of the important forage species.
This method is based on the assumption
that most grasses have a reasonably con-
stant distribution of weight throughout the
plant in relation to height. Three distinct

167

types, all with flower stalks, are indicated in
the curves shown in Fig. 3. Bottlebrush
squirreltail (Sztanion hystrix) has a nearly
straight line relationship, with weight dis-
tributed about equally through the plant
from the top of the tallest flower stalk. Blue
grama (Bouteloua gracilis) has a gentle
curve, with about 80 percent of the weight
in the bottom half of the plant owing to the
abundance of basal leaves. Sandberg blue-
grass (Poa secunda) has a slight ‘‘S’”’ curve
because of heavy seed heads and high con-
centration of weight in the basal leaves.
Curves for plants without seedstalks are
still somewhat different. Application of
these tables in the field requires great care,
because Clark (1948) has found significant
differences within the same species in dif-
ferent years and in different altitudinal
zones in central Utah.

Boutelouo P
gracilis
ie nae ESS I

UTILIZATION (PERCENT WEIGHT REMOVED)

HEIGHT REMOVED (PERCENT)

Fig. 3.—Three types of height-weight curves of
range grasses, all with seedstalks: bottlebrush
squirreltail (Sztanion hystrix) from Utah, plants
processed by Ira Clark, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station; blue grama (Boute-
lowa gracilis) from Colorado, processed by David
F. Costello, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station; and Sandberg bluegrass (Poa
secunda) from Utah, processed by Ira Clark.

The process of preparing height-weight
tables consists of collecting ungrazed plants
from the range, then cutting them at one
inch or other convenient intervals from top
to bottom, weighing the segments and con-
verting this information into percentage
height and weight.

Such height-weight tables were prepared
for several species in Montana by Lommas-
son and Jensen (1938); in the Southwest by
Crafts (1938); and in Utah by Clark. The
original height-weight curves have been
used in the field determination of utilization.
However, Lommasson and Jensen, and

168

Crafts independently prepared gauges or
‘‘slide-rules’”’ in which to carry the height-
weight data in compact form and use it
readily. The examiner measures both grazed
and ungrazed plants of a selected key spe-
cies, sets the ungrazed height in the gauge,
and opposite the grazed stubble height
reads the percentage utilization. In field
practice, of course, this procedure requires
measuring a representative sample. Reid
and Pickford (1941) found that the height-
weight and the ocular estimate by plot
methods gave substantially the same esti-
mates of utilization on grasses if the stubble
height was rather uniform. However, they
found the ocular estimate to be simpler in
field use.

Still another method of determining range
utilization is the measurement of stubble
height along a line transect, used in re-
search at the Southwestern Forest and
Range Experiment Station (Canfield, 1941).

One final utilization method requiring
mention is the visual evaluation of plant
residue, developed for application on Cali-
fornia annual type ranges (Hormay and
Fausett, 1942). Since maintenance of soil
fertility and forage productivity on this
type depends upon a fairly complete plant
cover, the relative amount of debris remain-
ing after grazing is finished each year is

judged ocularly. A particularly helpful eri--

terion is the extent to which surface objects
such as rodent mounds, pine cones, and
sticks are obscured by the remaining vege-
tation. Systematic observation is, of course,
necessary to secure average utilization over
large pastures.

Regardless of method of determining
utilization, the figure obtained on a range
must be compared with a predetermined
proper utilization percentage for the impor-
tant forage species. Also very careful ob-
servation of soil erosion, disturbance, and
range condition are necessary for an ade-
quate picture of utilization and its effects on
the range.

APPLICATION OF RESULTS

Out of all this complexity of factors,
plant types, forage species, climatic varia-
tion, proper use, and methods of measuring

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 6

utilization, must come a fairly simplified
procedure for application in range manage-
ment by the stockman and range adminis-
trator. One of the first tasks in the Forest
Service range utilization study started in
1936 was the assembly of available utiliza-
tion guides into practical regional hand-
books, primarily applicable to national.
forest ranges. An example is the handbook
prepared by Swift and Fausett (1939) for
California ranges. After a brief background
on range condition, this handbook presents
writeups for each of several major types
with photographic and text descriptions
of the type itself, in good and in poor condi-
tion, overutilized and satisfactorily utilized.
Research has since brought out several pub-
lications embodying useful standards. In
addition to several already mentioned,
important contributions include Costello
(1942) on short-grass ranges of eastern Colo-
rado; Campbell and Crafts (1939) on black-
grama ranges; and Crafts and Glendening
(1942) on blue-grama ranges of the South-
west. It has also been necessary to stand-
ardize and simplify certain concepts such as
key areas, key species, and utilization in
terms of percentage weight.

As a part of the Department of Agricul-
ture program for sustained livestock pro-
duction from western ranges, useful range

“research results have been furnished to

range managers generally. Direct assistance
has been given the Agricultural Adjustment
Agency by preparing and adapting height-
weight tables for attaining more efficient
use of forage and better management gen-
erally on private ranges. Improved pro-
cedures have been furnished to range
technicians of the Forest Service and other
public agencies. Especial emphasis has been
given the formulation of better proper use
ratings for important forage plants under
different sets of conditions. Sound proper
use figures for the important forage plants
are basic for effective range surveys and the
subsequent application of good practices
through carefully prepared management
plans for range units. Finally a systematic
effort has been made to show range man-
agers all through the West that sustained
production is obtained only conservative
grazing on ranges in good condition.

JUNE 15, 1943 CAMPBELL: UTILIZATION STANDARDS FOR WESTERN RANGES

FUTURE RANGE UTILIZATION RESEARCH

The present period of practical applica-
tion of utilization standards for maximum
wartime production of forage and livestock
affords good opportunity to reanalyze the
problem so that future research will be
pointed at the most urgent features. Among
these is a better evaluation of condition and
trend to avoid the deterioration that has
taken place in the past. A start on work of
this sort was made by Ellison and Croft at
the Intermountain Forest and Range Ex-
periment Station in 1942, combining range
ecology and watershed management view-
points. A particular weakness is the lack of
criteria for judging soil condition. In some
instances the vegetation indicated satis-
factory condition and trend at the same
time that excessive trampling by livestock
was causing abnormal erosion. These cri-
teria will include such things as litter, bare
soil surface, and top soil remains.

Utilization studies should be extended to
additional types and species with special
emphasis on deteriorated ranges in order to
restore them to maximum productivity as
quickly as possible. The effect on forage
plants of utilization by big game and
' rodents is an important field in itself, still
largely unexplored. More work along plant
physiological lines is needed so that manage-
ment can be based on a better knowledge of
the internal processes of plants on grazed
ranges. Gaps in present information are the
mechanisms which enable some plants to
better survive grazing and drought than
others. Likewise, the entire utilization ques-
tion needs a much better knowledge of ecol-
ogy, particularly of the important forage
plants in relation to the habitat. Finally,
related work on nutritive values of forage
plants is needed in order to secure the
greatest livestock production from range
lands in coordination with farm crops and
other feed supplies.

LITERATURE CITED

CAMPBELL, R.S. Problems of measuring forage
utilization on western ranges. Ecology 18:
528-532. 1937.

and Bomprrcer, E. H. The occur-

rence of Gutierrezia sarothrae on Bouteloua

erlopoda ranges in southern New Mexico.

Ecology 15: 49-61. 1934.

and Crarrs, E. C. How to keep and

increase black grama on southwestern ranges.

169

U.S. Dept. Agr. Leaflet 180, 8 pp. 1939.
CANFIELD, R. H. The effect of intensity and
frequency of clipping on density and yield
of black grama and tobosa grass. U. §S.
Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 681, 832 pp. 1939.

Application of the line interception
method im sampling range _ vegetation.
Journ. For. 39: 388-394. 1941.

CuaRrK, Ira. Suitability of volume-height tables
for estumating the degree of range forage
utilization. Journ. For. (In press.)

CostELLo, D. F. Maintaining short-grass
ranges. Colorado Ext. Serv. Bull. D. 33,
11 pp. 1942.

Crappock, G. W., and Forsitine, C. L. The
influence of clumate and grazing on spring-
fall sheep range in southern Idaho. U.S.
Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 600, 43 pp. 1988.

Crarts, E. C. Volume-height distribution in
range grasses. Journ. For. 36: 1182-1185.
1938

and GLENDENING, G. E. How to graze
blue grama on southwestern ranges. U.S.
Dept. Agr. Leaflet 215, 8 pp. 1942.

Hormay, A. L., and Fausrrt, A. Standards
for judging the degree of forage utilization on
California annual-type ranges. California
Forest and Range Exp. Stat. Techn. Note
21,13 pp. 1942. (Processed.)

JARDINE, J. T. The pasturage system for
handling range sheep. For. Serv. Cire. 178.
40 pp. 1910.

Lommasson, T., and JENSEN, C. Grass volume
tables for determining range utilization.
Science (n.s.) 87: 444. 1988.

McCarty, E. C., and Pricz, R. Growth and
carbohydrate content of important mountain
forage plants in central Utah as affected by
clipping and grazing. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Tech. Bull. 818, 51 pp. 1942.

Newson, Enoco W. The influence of precipita-
tion and grazing upon black grama grass
range. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. 409,
32 pp. 1934.

PrcHanec, J. F:, and Pickrorp, G. D. A
comparison of some methods used in deter-
mining percentage utilization of range
grasses. Journ. Agr. Res. 54: 753-765.
1937.

Ficxrorp, G. ., and Kem, E. Hl. Basis for
judging subalpine grassland ranges of Ore-
gon and Washington. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Circ. 655, 38 pp. 1942.

Rep, E. H., and Pickrorp,G. D. A compari-
son of the ocular-estimate-by-plot and the
stubble-height methods of determining per-
centage uttlization of range grasses. Journ.
For. 39: 935-941. 1941.

Sampson, A. W. Natural revegetation of de-
pleted mountain grazing lands. For. Serv.
Circ. 169, 28 pp. 1909.

Plant succession in relation to range
management. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 791,
76 pp. 1919.

Swirt, L. W., and Fausett, A. Range utiliza-
tion standards. U.S. Forest Service, Cali-
fornia Region, 38 pp. 1939. (Processed.)

170

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

BOTAN Y.—Distribution and character of Sabal louisiana.! Miriam L. BomHarp,

U.S. Forest Service.

Sabal louisiana (Darby) Bomhard was
described under the genus Chamaerops in
1816? by William Darby, but it escaped the
serious attention of botanists until the
spring of 1925, when the late Dr. John K.
Small rediscovered it. He published it as a
new species, S. deeringiana, in 1926,° for he
was not then aware that an earlier name
existed. In this paper Dr. Small pointed
out that native arborescent palmettos were
thought to be lacking along the thousand-
mile stretch of the Gulf coast between St.
Andrews Bay, Fla., the western limit of
S. palmetto (Walt.) Lodd., and the lower
Rio Grande River near Brownsville, Tex.,
where S. texana (Cook) Becce. is indigenous.
The type locality is given as ‘‘Flat alluvial
places, near Pointe aux Herbes, along Lake
Pontchartrain, Louisiana.’’* This is indeed a
very restricted area east of New Orleans
and slightly northwest of the Chef Menteur
(a pass between Lakes Pontchartrain and
Borgne).

In a later paper, 1929, following further
field work in the general region of Lake
Pontchartrain and the Mississippi Delta,
Dr. Small wrote: ‘‘The geographic limits of
Sabal deeringiana are not yet perfectly
known. It grows in swamps and along bay-
ous in the lower Mississippi delta. It has
not been observed east of the Pearl River,
nor west of the Atchafalaya River.’’>® In
his Manual of the southeastern (flora
(1933), the distribution is given as “Flat
alluvial places along the lower Mississippi
River, bayous and lakes, 8. La.’’6

About 1932 I began to make surveys of

1 Received March 22, 1948.

2 DaRBYy, WILLIAM. A geographical description
of the state of Loutsiana ... being an accompani-
ment to the map of Louisiana, ed. 1: 194. 1816.

3 SMALL, JOHN K. A new palm from the Mis-
sissippi Delta. Torreya 26: 33-385. 1926.

4There are no Louisiana palmettos in the
marshes in the immediate vicinity of Pointe aux
Herbes. Those seen by Dr. Small were a distance
south of this place.

5 SmautL, JoHN K. Palmetto-with-a-stem—Sa-
bal deeringiana. Journ. New York Bot. Gard.
30: 283. 1929.

6 SMALL, JoHN K. Manual of the southeastern
flora: 240. 1933.

habitats similar to those in which Louisiana
palmetto was rediscovered, as well as in
areas mentioned by Darby. The results for
Louisiana were published in 1935 and sum-
marized in the following statement: “Al-
though palmettos are widely distributed
over much of eastern and southern Louisi-
ana, they attain their most luxuriant de-
velopment in the southeastern portion of
the State, where trunked forms occur.
Trunked palmettos are much more wide-
spread in Louisiana at the present time
than has been supposed, having been found
by the writer westward nearly to Opelousas
and south almost to the Gulf of Mexico.”

Emphasis was first placed on trunked
palmettos because the climax form with a
well-developed trunk is easily recognized.
For example, the arborescent Sabal loucsi-
ana specimens standing fairly in the open
at Frenier Beach on the west shore of Lake
Pontchartrain are so different from other
tree-Sabals that the distinctive characters
of this species in its prime are unmistakable.®
Then, too, the most logical approach to an
understanding of any arborescent palm
species in its native habitat is through ob-
servation of the developmental series of a
population in the midst of obviously mature
trees. Thus, it later became possible to
ascertain the identity of groups of Sabal
louisiana which had not yet attained their
prime and with which mature trees were
not intermingled.

From observations in Louisiana it seemed
apparent that Louisiana palmetto would be

7 BomuarpD, Miriam L. Sabal louisiana, the
correct name for the polymorphic palmetto of
Louisiana. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 25 (1):
42.1935.

8 The only habit photographs of this species
thus far published by others are of specimens at
eeu Beach. See Figs. 5 and 6 in SMatt, JoHN

ae and Figs. 152 and 167 in BAILEY,
1 Sabal et ceterae. Gentes Herbarum III,
ae VI, art. 6, 1934. Dr. Small’s Fig. 6 was re-
published in his article Palms of the Continental
United States. Sci. Monthly 32: 10. 1931. A photo-
graph of a specimen growing near Bayou Bien-
venue, eastern Louisiana, was published as Fig. 1
in Bomuarp, Miriam L. What palms grow in
Loutstana. Louisiana Cons. Rev., Autumn, 1937.

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

distributed throughout the Gulf Coastal
Plain (including the Mississippi Alluvial
Plain) wherever the physiographic and
micro-climatic conditions are essentially the
same. Exploration in this broader area,
based on this premise, has been carried out
since 1935—along the waterways of recent
alluvial origin where conditions are reason-
ably similar to those of southeastern Louisi-
ana and where it could almost be predicted
that Sabal louiszana would occur.

As a result of these studies the present
known range of Sabal louisiana has now
been considerably extended. From Louisi-
ana this species radiates out into eastern
Texas, southeastern Arkansas, and at least
into western Florida. The most important
extension was the discovery of Sabal
louisiana in Texas, where it had apparently
not been previously observed by botanists. °®
The finding of well-developed arborescent
palmettos in that State is especially signifi-
cant and conclusive.

On a brief trip through eastern Texas in
May and June of 1941, two stands of Sabal
louzsiana were discovered south of Cleve-
land, Tex.—on the western margin of the
“Big Thicket.” The first, in a local depres-
sion just below the town itself, consisted of
a dense stand of palmettos, most of them in
the intermediate growth stage, with a boot-
aggregation of 40 cm or more, leaves 18 dm
in expanse, and very robust, strongly
branched inflorescences more than 45 dm
tall although not yet in bud. This group is
similar to many of those in southeastern
Louisiana growing under the most favorable
environmental conditions.

The second, 4 miles south of Cleveland,
within sight from the bridge (U. 8. Highway
59) that crosses the East Fork of the San
Jacinto River, was a group with arborescent
specimens. Perhaps 20 trees are easily ac-
cessible, scattered in a rather open portion
of the flood bed on the east bank of the
river. Farther back, in an area not readily
accessible, the large crowns of many other
Louisiana palmettos are visible. It was pos-

9See Parks, H. B., Cory, V. L., and others.
Biological survey of the east Texas big thicket area,
ed. 1, 1936, and ed. 2, 1938. There is a photograph
on page 24, captioned “‘Giant palmetto,” but
S. minor is the only species of this genus given
(p. 33) in the list of plants of the big thicket.

171

sible to take specimens, measurements, and
photographs (Pl. 1, lower left) only of the
trees in the open area. The trunk height of
these did not exceed 11 dm, and the diame-
ter, without boots, averaged 33 cm. This
group is, in many respects, a replica of a
stand in the Vermilion River bottomland,
near Intracoastal City, southern Louisiana,
where short-trunked palmettos remain in
clearings nearest the newly made road and
the more robust specimens are inaccessible
in the midst of woody vegetation, subject
to annual inundation.

Another collection of Sabal lowisiana was
found in the bottomlands of the Lavaca
River, west of Lolita, Tex. Those nearest
the road, although of intermediate char-
acter and of uniformly the same age, were
so dense and the flood area appeared to be
so broad that arborescent specimens in
their prime or even old specimens might
have been brought to light had there been
time to give this region more than a cursory
investigation.

Having seen some small groups of poor-
looking palmettos (intermediate stage) near
the Colorado River, in the vicinity of Whar-
ton, and on the San Bernard River, near
Hungerford (U. 8S. Highway 59), I later
made a hasty survey of these same river
areas nearer to the coast, this time following
State Highway 35, that is, near Bay City
and near West Columbia, and also out of
East Columbia on the Brazos River. Al-
though conditions here were favorable for
arborescent palms, I did not find any in the
limited time at my disposal.

However, at least one excellent stand
with trunked palmettos does occur in the
San Bernard River bottomland 8 miles from
Brazoria, Brazoria County. Discovered by
Robert A. Vines, of Houston, Tex., these
palms were brought to my attention in
June, 1942, by C. V. Morton, of the United
States National Herbarium, to whom Mr.
Vines sent photographs and notes, leaves,
and portions of a fruiting stalk of an arbores-
cent Sabal for identification. It proved to be
Sabal louisiana. This discovery of a group
of 20 or more of these palms is a fine contri-
bution to the distribution pattern of Sabal
louisiana, especially since three very old
trees are in the group, one with a trunk

172

height of 54 dm—the greatest height yet
recorded for the bole of Louisiana palmetto.
A portion of Mr. Vines’s notes accompany-
ing the specimens (Vines 425) reads as
follows: ‘‘Hasirat.—Swampy black soil.
Associated with Sabal minor, Quercus
virginiana, Ulmus crassifolia and Fraxinus
pennsylvanica var. lanceolata. REMARKS.—A
palm with a distinct trunk. A handsome
palm. Flowers in June and July. Fruit ma-
tures in November and December. Evi-
dently very limited in distribution. Eighteen
plants found within a half-mile radius. From
the number of young plants seen, it was
evidently reproducing itself satisfactorily.
All the trees grow in thick tangles of vegeta-
tion, and are thus protected from excess
cold during winter. Old settlers say this
small isolated group of palms has been
growing wild in the bottomlands as long as
they can remember.”

Mr. Vines has recently graciously sup-
plied me with his negatives, from which the
illustrations in the upper and lower right
of Plate 1 were made, as well as with the
following additional statement concerning
the circumstances of his discovery and
locality details:

The stand of palms grew on the land of Deputy-
Sheriff Harold Graves, of Brazoria, Tex. The
stand is located on the Brazoria—Cedar Lane
cut-off road approximately 2 miles east of the
Brazoria and Matagorda County line. The Bra-
zoria—Cedar Lane road runs through the center
of the stand. When the road was built some of the
workmen dug up some of the large specimens to
plant in their yards. According to Deputy-Sheriff
Graves and several other of the older settlers,
the palms have been there for many years. They
remember them as having been in that location
for 25 or 30 years. They first remember them
when squirrel hunting in the bottomlands as boys,
and when rounding up cattle, before the road was
ever cut through.

I have also heard rumors of another stand of
aborescent palms in the same region. The rumor
circulated by old Negro settlers who said they
used to see the big palms while fishing on the
San Bernard River. None of them, however,
could give me exact directions as to just where it
might be. I tried several of the leads, but they
always were blind ones. I still have a suspicion
that at one time quite a large stand must have
existed along the San Bernard River. This stand,
of course, might have been destroyed, but the
rumors, and stories of it, still exist. I still have
hopes that I shall be able to rediscover the rem-
nants of the stand eventually.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

I first saw these palms, that is, those on the
Brazoria—Cedar Lane road, during the summer of
1941, but it was not until the summer of 1942
that I collected specimens and took pictures of
them.

Doubtless other arborescent stands will
be found in protected areas, where optimum
conditions exist, in Texas and other portions
of the Coastal Plain. ;

Louisiana appears to be the center of dis-
tribution. Observations thus far made indi-
cate that the greatest concentration of
vigorous and thriving stands, including
many individuals of arborescent character,
occurs in the fertile soils of the lower Mis-
sissippi Alluvial Plain. This is partly due
to the fact that habitat factors are most
favorable for their development and partly
because much of this region—in the wetter
areas—has not yet been too greatly altered
by the destructive forces of man.

The phrase ‘‘flat alluvial places’’ does not,
however, convey the true character of the
habitat of Sabal louisiana even in south-
eastern Louisiana. Although the areas
where it occurs are alluvial, they are not
strictly flat. The topography is varied. Ac-
count must be taken of the paired alluvial
or deltaic ridges, of greater or less width and
elevation, that traverse the swamps,
marshes, and other low-lying areas. The
ridges were formed by alluviation from a
series of successively developed distributary
channels of the Mississippi River, most of
which are no longer active. The land is high-
est nearest the active or abandoned chan-
nels of distributary streams, and slopes to-
ward the wetter areas, characterized by
temporary or permanent marshes, swamps,
lagoons, or lakes. Louisiana palmetto fre-
quently occurs in the so-called “‘back land”
zone or belt between the ridgeland and the
marshes or swamps; it may actually border
the wet areas; or if the ridges are of low
elevation, it may occupy the ridges them-
selves usually forming an understory to the
other arborescent vegetation. It also occurs
in coulees or relict distributionary channels.
It is at its best in the mild climate of the
Gulf coast, where there is a high water table
for much of the year and where partial
shade is provided by the surrounding vege-
tation. It is not a “swamp plant” in the

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

sense that baldcypress and water tupelo are
considered to be swamp trees.

S. louistana also occurs in the valleys of
the Red and Ouachita Rivers, as well as in
the Mississippi flood plain proper, where
artificial levees and spillways hold the
floods in check. In Louzsiana out-of-doors
Perey Viosca, Jr., writes concerning the
large interior river valleys, that include
hardwood valley lands, river basin swamps,
and lakes above Gulf level: “‘As this region is
_ the richest in the state from an agricultural
standpoint, most of it has been cut over,
and in place of the forests, today we find
sugar cane, corn or cotton fields and truck
and dairy farms. Cane is raised more toward
the southern part of the state, and cotton
more in central and north Louisiana.’’!° He
states further that palmetto thickets and
canebrakes occur on alluvial and “‘bluff”’ soils
wherever the water table is near the surface.

There is every indication that S. louisiana
- formerly occupied a much larger area than
it does today and that there were countless
more individuals of tree size. Indeed, Wil-
ham Darby wrote 137 years ago: ‘“‘The land
is commonly of the best quality. Much of
the surface of the country low upon the
Mississippi, now cultivated in cotton, maize,
rice, and sugar, was originally covered with
palmetto.’!! Extensive engineering opera-
tions, including the building of artificial
levees, the closing off of certain natural
waterways, the construction of roads, ac-
companied by clearing of the vegetation and

digging of drainage ditches and canals with >

consequent lowering of the water level, the
reclamation of land for cultivation—all
have contributed to the disappearance of
these palmettos.

This destruction may be witnessed to-
day. The illustration in the upper right of
Plate 2 shows the effect of road-building
near Intracoastal City, Vermilion Parish,
La. The area here occupied by Louisiana
palmetto is still rather extensive but it was
previously in much more flourishing condi-
tion. Dead trunks are lying about on the
ground as the result of burning and clearing,

10 Viosca, Percy, Jr. Louisiana out-of-doors:
A Handbook and guide: 51. 1933.
1 Darsy, op. cit.

173

and many palms that are still living show
charred trunks. The one-time height of the
flood level in this area may be noted from
the root zone on the trunk just below the
‘““‘boots’’ of the small tree illustrated. Fortu-
nately, a distance back of the road, arbores-
cent specimens in their prime with inflores-
cences overtopping the surrounding vegeta-
tion still exist.

The illustration in the upper left of Plate
2 shows a specimen with medium-sized
trunk in what was, until a few years ago, a
lovely grove of Louisiana palmetto, lying
between a natural levee and a cypress-
tupelo swamp, near the eastern limit of New
Orleans. Many palms were destroyed by
clearing and burning, in the process of ex-
tensive road-construction and draining, in
the general area of Bayou Bienvenue. More
recently truck gardening has been initiated
in the rich soil of this area, in the midst of
chopped and burned palmettos. |

In a report of a survey of the Rio Grande
River in Texas, Arthur Schott made the
following reference, in 1859, to a “‘gorgeous”’
growth of palmettos on the Mississippi
River: “‘It is also in the lower portion of this
belt (where the Palm tribe is represented by
the Chamaerops Palmetto) that the Pal-
metto attains a growth as gorgeous even as
that on the Lower Mississippi; it extends on
the Rio Bravo [Rio Grande] up to about 80
miles from the Gulf. In addition to the
Palmetto common to the lower portion of
these two great rivers, ... 7’!

In calling attention to Schott’s statement,
Dr. Small commented: ‘‘Field work in the
lower Mississippi delta by the writer sub-
sequent to the spring of 1925, has convinced
him that the extensive engineering opera-
tions connected with the building of the
levees along both banks of the river utterly
exterminated the palm growth referred to
by Schott. Arthur Schott made his observa-
tions about the middle of the last century,
while extensive levee building occurred
about the beginning of the last quarter of
that century. It is evident that neither the
engineers in charge of the levee work nor

122 ScHotrt, ArTHUR. Substance of the sketch of
the geology of the lower Rio Bravo del Norte, pt. 2,
in Emory, William H. Report on the United
States and Mexican boundary survey 1: 44. 1857.

174

their associates were botanists, else some
record additional to Schott’s original state-
ment would have found its way into
print.”’3 It should be mentioned here that
even near the Mississippi itself a few trunked
trees of S. louisiana occur south of Buras;
they have very small crowns and are not
now growing in a very favorable situation.
Furthermore, the Mississippi Delta oc-
cupies a widespread area, and it can be seen
from the outline map (Fig. 1) that there are
still groups of Louisiana palmetto in many
portions of it.

Forty-three years before Schott published
the statement quoted above, Darby wrote:
‘‘Along both banks of New River, in the
rear of the plantations on the Mississippi,
and on the banks of the Atchafalaya, are
the places where most of the arundo [Arun-
dinaria gigantea] yet exists. Here, as well as
in every other part of Louisiana, where the
land sinks too low for the arundo, is found
the Chamaerops lowisiana."4

At the present time, there is still a good
representation of Louisiana palmettos be-
tween Gonzales, just south of New River,
and Sorento, in Ascension Parish. In the
lower Atchafalaya Delta arborescent speci-
mens of S. louzstana may also be seen today
near Morgan City and east of it along
Bayous Black and Chacahoula.

Darby described Louisiana palmetto as
a new species because he was of the ‘‘opinion
that there is a specific difference between
the Chamaerops palmetto hitherto known to
botanists, and that of Louisiana.’!® The
mistake of Schott, Langlois, Featherman,}”
and others of thinking that Louisiana pal-
metto was the cabbage tree, S. palmetto
(=Chamaerops palmetto Michx.), does not
seem to me to indicate such a serious error in
judgment on the part of these observers, but
it does show the astuteness of Darby. Cer-

13 SMALL, JOHN K. Palmetto-with-a-stem—Sabal
deeringiana. Journ. New York Bot. Gard. 30:
280-281. 1929.

144 DarRsy, op. cit., 193-194.

16 Ibid. 194.

16 Laneuois, A. B. Catalogue provisoire de
plantes phanérogames et cryptogames de la Basse-
Lousiane, Htats-Unis d’ Amérique: 17. 1887.

17 FEATHERMAN, A. Report of botanical survey
of southern and central Louisiana made during the
year 1870: 25. 1871.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

tainly this palm could not be the stemless
S. minor (Jacq.) Pers. To what other arbo-
rescent palmetto could it have been referred,
considering that Darby’s work and publica-
tion was apparently not well known and
that S. texana had not yet been described?

Natural factors also are contributing to
changes in the aspect and extent of Louisi-
ana palmetto stands or to their complete
obliteration. Two examples—the first on
the southwest; the second on the north,
shore of Lake Pontchartrain—are of inter-
est. Many of the taller palmettos in the
striking group of 35 or more at Frenier
Beach (west shore) (2),!® standing in a
coulee back of the lake shore, give the ap-
pearance of having been planted for orna-
mental purposes. There are few transitional
forms in this relatively open area, but all
stages of growth occur in the low ground to
the rear. This beach was built by alluvial
deposits; there is a clay base, which, until
quite recently, was overlaid with sand. The
shore is now being cut back at a rapid rate,
geologically speaking. Continued erosion
will in the future change the natural habi-
tat. The character and relative abundance
of the palms will also be altered as a con-
sequence.

On the north shore, just east of Mande-
ville (5), a later stage in the squence is tak-
ing place. Here the lake, brackish at times,
is encroaching upon the land and has al-

‘ready built up a sand ridge, 83 feet in

height, upon the shore. Similar sand-
encroachments are taking place in certain
other portions of the north shore of Lake
Pontchartrain. The extent of swamp was
formerly much greater, as attested by cy-
press stumps about 400 feet out in the
lake and dead or dying cypress trees stand-
ing at the water’s edge. A direct line from
the outer margin of the cypress swamp into
the lake passes in succession (1) Louisiana
palmettos in flourishing condition but with
an inconsiderable development of trunk;
(2) specimens almost completely buried in
the sand, so that only the upper portion of
their trunks and crowns is free; and (8) ar-
borescent palmettos standing in a foot or

18 The figures in parentheses in the text refer
to localities on the outline map (Fig. 1).

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

more of water out in the lake itself. The
crowns of the palmettos in the last two
groups are much reduced in size, the leaves
are thick and very filiferous, and the flower-
stalks are telescoped. Eventually this whole
stand will be no more, even though new
plants will for a time continue to come up
between the ridge and the ever-shrinking
cypress swamp.

Dr. E. W. Berry states that ‘“‘the silicified
remains of palm wood are exceedingly com-
mon in the late Eocene and Oligocene de-
posits from Texas eastward across Louisi-
ana, Mississippi, and Alabama, and reap-
pear in several of the Greater and Lesser
Antilles, as well as in Mexico and on the
Isthmus of Panama.’’!® Palm leaves are also
preserved in certain of these deposits.
Various genera are represented, but the
correlation of fossils with living genera or
species can only be approximate. In the
palm family, leaf remains naturally provide
more useful identification characters than
trunks.

There are fossil deposits containing leaves
and ‘‘rays’”’ (segments) of Sabal-like species
in the Jackson formation (Upper Eocene),
especially in the Vicksburg limestones and
Catahoula and Fayette sands, from eastern
Texas to Georgia. Beds of Vicksburg age
are notable for the abundance of palm frag-
ments and are of especial interest. The fos-
sil leaf species, Sabalites vicksburgensis
Berry,”? is described as having a maximum
expanse of 120 cm, the rachis continues
upward part way through the blade, and the
40 segments, up to 3.6 cm wide, become free
in the outer one-third to one-half of the
blade. Although the type locality of this
fossil species is Rosefield, La. (Catahoula
sandstone), it is also abundantly repre-
sented in sands of similar age in Fayette,
Polk, Trinity, and Webb Counties, Tex.
Certain other species of Sabalites seem to
indicate close relationship with S. palmetto
or with S. mznor; it is not improbable that

19 Berry, EH. W. The flora of the Catahoula sand-
stone. (M) in Shorter contributions to general
geology, 1916. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 98:
23a. VOLT:

20 Tbid.

4 Burry, KE. W. The Middle and Upper Eocene
floras of southeastern North America. U. S. Geol.
Surv. Prof. Paper 92: 151, pl. 29. 1924.

175

Sabilites vicksburgensis may represent an
ancestor of S. louisiana, which certainly
must have been more widespread in geo-
logic time.

Louisiana palmetto, like other species of
Sabal, evidences a wide range of adaptabil-
ity to various environmental conditions
and, in common with many palms, has dif-
ferent aspects from youth to old age. A
consideration of it in four ontogenetic
stages—juvenile, intermediate, climax or
mature, and senescent—should contribute
to a better understanding of this species.

Apparently there are comparatively few
senescent Louisiana palmettos in existence,
and all that I have seen in Louisiana are, or
appear to be, growing in habitats that are
no longer entirely favorable. Only an ap-
proximation of their age is possible but it is
known that this species grows slowly. An
ancient tree, such as that illustrated in the
upper left of Plate 1, may well be 200 or
more years of age. Four (occasionally eight)
leaves are produced by S. lowisiana in a
season; the leafscars on the trunk are very
close together. It is not determinable what
length of time elapses in the production of
the horizontal underground stem before the
erect habit is assumed.

A reduced leafcrown—smaller blades on
shorter petioles—and shortened, telescoped
inflorescences are indications of senescence
or induced senescence. Thus, the total
height of an old specimen with relatively
tall trunk is often less than that of a speci-
men in its prime with much shorter bole.
The more robust appearance of the younger
palmettos in the photograph is evident as is
also the contrast between the senescent tree
and the young climax form at the left.

This group (Pl. 1, upper left) is part of
the largest single Louisiana palmetto area
of which I am aware, but I have not seen
more than a half-dozen senescent specimens
in it. Thousands of palmettos, the majority
in the intermediate and climax stages, oc-
cupy an almost unbroken stretch of at
least 20 miles from Golden Meadow to a
distance south of Leeville, La., along Bayou
Lafourche (14). This bayou no longer func-
tions as a distributary of the Mississippi
River, having been closed off from it in 1912.
The broader alluvial regions in the upper por-

176

tion of its course are under cultivation. The
palmettos are to be seen in the lower por-
tion. They occupy a relatively narrow,
almost treeless zone between the ridge-road
and swamp or marsh, or they occur as an
understory on the chéniéres. These ridges
near the coast, on which live oak (Quercus
virginiana), water oak (Q. nigra), and hack-
berry (Celtis laevigata) form the dominant
vegetation, take their name from the
French chéne, oak. The palmetto growth
fades out together with the diminishing
chéniéres toward the Gulf of Mexico.

The few senescent specimens in this large
tract closely resemble each other; some have
more boots clinging just under the crown.
A dense mass of roots clothes the lower 4.5
dm or less at the base of all of them. The
trunks are almost white—a modification in
this saline situation, where the insolation
is intense, of the normally grayish-brown
tone of the bark of this species. The longi-
tudinal fissures that cross the closely spaced
leafscars lend a checkered appearance to
the bark.

In Louisiana old palmetto individuals
also occur near Bayou Bienvenue (3) and
near the Mississippi River on Bayou Laird,
south of Buras (15); the trees, partly buried
in the sand ridge on the north shore of Lake
Pontchartrain (5) and with only 75 cm of
visible trunk, are also senescent. Measure-
ments in these scattered localities are very
similar and may be summarized as follows:
Trunk: Height, 15—-26.5 dm (up to 54 dm
in Texas); diameter of trunk devoid of
boots, 22.6-28 cm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse,
10.5—-13 dm; length in middle line, 6.5—9 dm;
rachis length, 15-26 cm; number of seg-
ments, 34-40; widest segments, 3.8-5.7 em;
sparsely to very filiferous in the sinuses, de-
pending upon the habitat. Perioty: Length,

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VOL. 33, NO. 6

50-80 cm; width near blade, 2.2-2.9 cm;
width near base, 2.8-3.8 cm. INFLORES-
CENCE: Height, 12-27 dm; width at base of
inflorescence stalk, 3.2-7.6 cm; number of
sterile spathes, 10; number of fertile spathes,
7-18. .

The specimen illustrated in the upper
right of Plate 1 was photographed by Mr.
Vines in the San Bernard River bottoms
(28) of Texas. Three trees in this area are
old, the tallest trunk measuring 54 dm. The
diameter averages 30 cm. This locality ap-
pears to represent a more nearly normal
habitat for S. lowisiana than any of the
areas in Louisiana where old trees have been
observed. The crown shows reduction in
size, but the leaves appear to be larger and
the petioles are longer than those whose
measurements have just been listed. This is
to be expected where palms occur in an un-
disturbed wet area in ‘‘thick tangles of vege-
tation.’’ Sudden lowering of the water table
has apparently not occurred in this region
and it is probable that complete drying out
of the terrain does not take place. This
venerable group should continue to be pro-
tected. It is highly desirable that certain
groups of Louisiana palmetto in Louisiana
should be set aside for conservation, inas-
much as stands of this sort are imminently
threatened with extinction.

Louisiana palmetto evidences the full
vigor of maturity in the climax stage. The
few descriptions of this species thus far
published apply, with some emendations, to
this life-form. Ordinarily the climax stage is
a bulky palm, with heavy, impressive crown,
but its appearance varies somewhat with
habitat just as do other phases of this
species. Plate 1, lower left and lower right,
illustrates typical specimens in Texas (27
and 28). The most typical specimens in

PuatEe 1.—Upper left: Senescent S. louisiana, surrounded by palmettos of intermediate ‘growth
stage with boot-aggregation, and young climax forms with short trunks such as that to the left of the
old tree. In an open situation where the habitat is no longer entirely favorable, along Bayou La-

fourche, near Leeville, La. (15).

Upper right: Senescent S. lowisiana, with trunk height of 51 dm. In an apparently optimum habitat,

San Bernard River bottoms, 8 miles west of Brazoria, Tex. (29). Photograph by Robert A.

Vines.

Lower left: Louisiana palmetto of climax form. Upper portion of trunk and lower part of crown.
Open bottomland, East Fork of the San Jacinto River, south of Cleveland, Tex. (27). ;

Lower right: Vigorous climax specimen that has retained the leaf bases in a favorable, protected
habitat. Mr. Vines, who discovered and photographed this stand, is holding a leaf cut from a younge
climax palmetto growing nearby. San Bernard River bottoms, 8 miles west of Brazoria, Tex. (29).

PuLaTE 1.—(See opposite page for explanation.)

BEE cx ROM

- ood

Roses Hes)
is

bose

PuLatTE 2.—Upper left: Typical young climax form of S. lowistana. Near Paris Road, vicinity of
Bayou Bienvenue, La. (3).

Upper right: Climax Louisiana palmetto, showing the effects of burning and clearing in connection
with road-construction. Sawed palmetto trunks in the left foreground. Near Intracoastal City, La.
(16).

Lower right: ‘‘Field type”’ of intermediate growth stage, showing the characteristic collapse of the
dying leaves. Along a fence bordering a cottonfield, Rayville, La. (35).

Bottom: A group of palmettos in intermediate growth stage toward the northern limit of the range

of S. louzsiana. The strongly branched inflorescences are not yet in bud (May 28, 1941). West of Mont-
rose, Ark. (23).

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

southern Louisiana, such as that shown in
the upper left of Plate 2, grow in partial
shade on moist fresh-water sites that are
flooded in winter and in early spring. In the
lower-lying areas Louisiana palmetto is as-
sociated with willows (principally Salix
nigra), red maple (Acer rubrum drum-
mondiz), and ashes (Fraxinus caroliniana,
F. tomentosa, or F. pennsylvanica lanceolata),
not far removed from the deeper swamps
dominated by baldcypress (Taxodium dis-
_ tichum) and water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica,
usually known as tupelogum) or swamp
blackgum (JN. biflora). On the ridges, domi-
nated by live oak and hackberry and some-
times also southern magnolia (Magnolia
grandiflora), the other arborescent associ-
ates of Louisiana palmetto include Ameri-
can sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua),
water oak (Quercus nigra), willow oak (Q.
phellos), waterelm (Planera aquatica), and
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana).
Common honeylocust (Gledztsia triacanthos)
or yaupon (Ilex vomitoria) is also frequently
present.

In the interior river valleys of central and
northern Louisiana tree communities of the
wetter areas are, on the whole, similar to
those farther south. Several additional spe-
cies of oak, such as red oak (Q. shumardz),
Nuttall oak (Q. nuttallz), and overcup oak
(Q. lyrata), pecan (Carya pecan), winged
elm (Ulmus alata), and other hardwoods
augment the list of tree associates that oc-
cur with Louisiana palmetto on the ridge-
lands farther from the coast.

In optimum habitats a characteristic
specimen of Louisiana palmetto with
medium-sized trunk has large, compara-
tively thin, bluish-green leaves up to 20 dm
broad. The length in the middle line is 9
dm or more; but this is somewhat shorter
than the maximum blade length in either
side of the center. The pinnati-palmate
leaves are not in one plane. The blades have
a characteristic ‘‘palmetto-curve,”’ but it is
not so strongly developed as in S. palmetto
and other large-leaved arborescent Sabals.
The rachis (continuation of the petiole as a
midrib into the blade, along which most of
the segments originate) is winged below and
firmly supports the lower one-third of the
blade, but, beyond it, the leaf is deeply split

177

into two halves. From 36-50 segments
divide the outer half or two-thirds of the
blade, the inner solid portion being broadly
heart-shaped in outline with the notch at
the top, at the end of the rachis. The broad,
gradually acuminate segments stand out
rather stiffly; their apices, although bifid
from several to 13 cm (or even more at the
sides), are usually not flaccid. A thread-like
fiber hangs in the clefts of the younger
leaves but only a few persist in older ones.
The flat, platelike hastula, at the juncture
of the petiole and blade on the upper surface
of the leaf, is asymmetrical and averages 4
em in length.

The unarmed petioles, longer than the
blades, are concave on their upper and
rounded on their lower surfaces; the up-
turned margins are very sharp, faintly den-
ticulate toward the base. The peitole bases
split with age but only occasionally form a
crisscross or lattice (so characteristic of the
larger Sabal species). The two boot-halves
remain erect or at least ascending for a con-
siderable period. The sheaths are never
prominent; in fact, they are noticeable only
in the youngest part of the crown, where the
petiole bases of the newest leaves are bor-
dered by narrow, chaffy, light brown
margins.

One of the most interesting characteris-
tics of this species is the peculiar collapse
of the dying leaves at the juncture of the
petiole and blade, giving the effect of a half-
closed umbrella. The blade may fall off at
this point, or the petiole may break midway
before the blade falls.

A trunk averaging 9-18 dm in height
usually exhibits three zones: a region of
roots at the base, a narrow girdle of bark,
and a boot area below the leafcrown. Oc-
easionally an additional root development
occurs fairly high up on the trunk, indicat-
ing some previous high water level. (Com-
pare the illustration in the upper right of
Plate 2 with that in the upper left.) The
actual trunk diameter (bark only) rarely
exceeds 33 cm and is usually somewhat less.
When the boots persist over a period of
years, as often happens in the wetter situa-
tions, the trunk appears to be twice as thick
as it actually is. The rough bark is usually
grayish brown. —

178

Four to six (generally four) inflorescences
(‘‘spadices”’ of literature) are produced in a
season. They stand stiffly erect and, in the
more open situations, may surpass the as-
sociated small trees. Twenty-two or more
tubular, long-pointed spathes overlap each
other and cover the length of the inflores-
cence axis. Those in the lower stalklike por-
tion of the axis are sterile; the upper, fertile.
S. louisiana is characterized by a thrice-
compound inflorescence—the strongly de-
veloped, ascending or appressed, lateral
branches that emerge from the lower fertile
spathes may attain 9 dm in length in the
climax form. The branches become progres-
sively shorter until, toward the apex of the
main inflorescence, the panicles emerge
directly from the uppermost fertile spathes.
The lower branches have five or fewer sterile
spathelets at their base and the ten or fewer
panicles are subtended by the upper fertile
spathelets.

The young inflorescence shoots are visible
in the leafcrown in November. These are
elongated, attenuate-coniform structures,
imbricated with the appressed apices of the
lower spathes. Full development is not at-
tained until the following spring. Flowering
begins in June, or even late in May, and
sometimes continues into July. In some
years full flowering fails to take place, even
on perfectly vigorous specimens, because of
unusual infestation of the panicle buds by
insect larvae. Some of the lower panicles of
the branches may come into flower but the
remainder are aborted. In 1933 only one
palmetto tree in a stand of 40 or more bore
normal inflorescences.

The flowers are white, sessile, 5-6 mm
high, spirally placed about the rachillae at
rather regular intervals, spaced several
millimeters apart. They are subtended by
two unequal bracteoles, the base of the
smaller being partially enclosed by the
larger. Floral characters are: calyx 2-2.5
mm high, cylindric and thick below, 3-
angled, with three short, triangular, un-
equal, slightly carinate, thin, nerved lobes;
corolla more or less united with the stamens
into a short pseudotube at base; petals 3,
broadly ovate, 3.3-3.5 mm high, 2 mm
broad at base, thin, involute, minutely ser-
rulate, thickened and hooded at apex, auri-

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VOL. 33, NO. 6

—cled at based, 5-7 nerved; stamens 6, the

alternate shorter than the opposite that are
adnate to the petals; filaments subulate-
lanceolate, dorsoventrally flattened; op-
posite stamens 4.5—5 mm high, the filaments
4 mm high, 1 mm broad at base; alternate
stamens 4—4.5 mm high, filaments 3.5 mm
high, less than 1 mm broad at base; anthers
bright yellow, introrse, short-sagittate, 1-1.2
mm long, anther sacs somewhat unequal;
pistil comprised of 3 carpels, 3.5—-4 mm high,
1 mm or more broad at the enlarged ovarial
base, stylar portion 3-angled, apex truncate.
The flower buds show 18 chromosomes
(plate stage).”

The fruits are suborbicular, brownish
black drupes, ripening in November. They
average 9-1] mm in diameter and 8-9.5 mm
in height. The reddish brown, sub-lustrous
seeds, enclosed in a thin integument, are 8-9
mm in diameter and 6-7 mm in height. The
micropyle is lateral.

Many of the fine groups of climax speci-
mens along Bayou Sauvage and near the
Chef Menteur (1 and 4), including some of
those on which Dr. Small based his original
description of S. deeringiana, are, unfor-
tunately, no longer extant. However, favor-
able localities in Louisiana where numbers
of characteristically well-developed climax
specimens may still be observed are at
Frenier Beach (2), near Bayou Bienvenue |
(3), in the lower portion of the Vermilion
River bottom (16), along Bayou des Alle-
mands (11), east of Berwick Bay on Bayous
Black and Chacahoula and south of it on
Bayou Shaffer (15), and in some other places
(1, 12, 14). Fairly isolated individuals in
their prime, noted in Louisiana, near the
towns of Bunkie (19), Denham Springs
(17), and Rayville (22), will be discussed in
connection with Louisiana palmettos of
intermediate growth stage. In Alabama a
good stand of representative Louisiana ~
palmettos grows in the bottomland of the
Tensas River at the head of Mobile Bay,

2 Dr. A. E. Longley, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, obligingly examined many samples
of Louisiana palmetto flower buds that had been
collected in various localities. Only those from
the Chef Menteur area along Bayou Sauvage
proved to be in the proper stage for chromosome
counts. They were collected from both climax and
intermediate forms of S. louisiana.

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

in a locality inaccessible except by descent
from the Louisville & Nashville Railroad
trestle (24). The best groups thus far dis-
covered in Texas have already been men-
tioned as occurring in the bottomland of the
East Fork of the San Jacinto River (27) and
in that of the San Bernard River (28).
Measurements of the climax form may
be stated as follows: TRuNxK: Height 9-19.5
dm; diameter of trunk devoid of boots, 28—
34 cm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse, 16.5-20 dm;
length in middle line, 9-12 dm; rachis
length, 25-42.5 cm (usually 30-87.5 cm);
number of segments 36-50 (usually 38-42) ;
widest segments, 4.7—7 cm; usually sparsely
filiferous. Prtiotn: Length, 70-145 cm
(usually 105-135 cm); width nearest blade,
2-3.8 cm; width nearest base, 4.5-5.7 cm.
INFLORESCENCE: Height, 25.5-39 dm (usu-
ally 36 dm); width at base of inflorescence
stalk, 4.5-6.4 cm; number of sterile spathes,
10-14; fertile spathes, 12-18; lower in-
florescence branches up to 9 dm in length.
Deviations from the characteristic climax
form of the shaded, fresh-water sites are
especially apparent in the extensive Bayou
Lafourche palmetto area (14), evidencing
adaptation to a different set of environ-
mental factors. The leafblades are thicker in
texture, glaucous, stiffer, yellow- or gray-
green, and abundantly filiferous; the in-
florescences average 30 dm in height; and
the trunk diameter is not quite 28 cm.
Under favorable conditions there is a
natural transition from the climax form to
those of intermediate stage. It is so gradual
that the line of demarcation has been ar-
bitrarily placed to include in the intermedi-
ate stage those specimens whose trunks
usually retain the leafbases to form ‘‘boot-
ageregations’”’ of 9 dm or less, and that do
not yet show a true bark area. There is also
no visible root development above the
ground level. The leafblades are borne on
longer petioles and are frequently larger
than those in the climax form; they are
ordinarily 3 dm broader in proportion to
their length. The tallest inflorescences with
the most strongly developed lower branches
(up to 15 dm in length) also occur in this
stage.
Palmettos of this robust intermediate
stage occur in most of the optimum areas

179

already given for the climax form. However,
certain additional localities in which the
palmetto population is predominantly or
entirely composed of flourishing specimens
in this and juvenile stages are of interest.
These palmetto areas are indicated on the
outline map by numbers 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 18,
20, and 21 for Louisiana, 23 in Arkansas,
and 26 and 29 in Texas. There is the pos-
sibility, of course, that climax forms are
associated with the intermediate forms in
the more inaccessible wetter portions of
some of these areas but have not yet been
discovered. In other populations, it is known
that the larger palmettos were removed in
the clearing of the forests for cultivation of
sugar, cotton, or other crops. Where cultiva-
tion was later abandoned and the areas
permitted to return undisturbed to forest,
second growth timber has come in. In such

places, provided that the water level is still

near the surface, all the palmettos are of
normal intermediate or younger growth
stage.

Louisiana palmettos of the intermediate
growth stage in normal environments have
the following dimensions: TruNK: Height,
3-9 dm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse, 12—21.5 dm;
length in middle line, 8-11 dm; rachis
length, 16.7-42 cm; number of segments,
34-50 (averaging 34-42); widest segments,
2.2-6.7 cm; sparsely to moderately filifer-
ous. PETIOLE: Length, 95-160 cm; width
nearest blade, 2.5-4.5 cm; width near base,
3.2-5.7 cm. INFLORESCENCE: Height, 27-46
dm; width at base of inflorescence stalk,
3.8-6.4 em; number of sterile spathes, 9-11;
number of fertile spathes, 11-17; length of
lowest branch, up to 15 dm.

An unfavorable environment is reflected
in the character of intermediate-stage pal-
metto groups subjected to adverse natural
factors such as saline or brackish water,
excessive direct sunlight, and the piling up
about the plant bases—or removal there-
from—of soil and inundation debris. The
great majority of the Louisiana palmettos of
intermediate stage that grow in deep muck
in exposed brackish habitats along Bayou
Lafourche (14), some of those on the lake
side of the sand ridge at Lake Pontchart-
rain (2), and the few specimens in sand on
the east shore near the mouth of the Escam-

180

bia River, Fla. (25), show the effects of
naturally trying conditions and closely re-
semble each other. ;

The character of Louisiana palmettoes in
or near pastures, cultivated fields, or fields
turned back to pasture is also associated
with unfavorable environmental conditions,
but these have been mainly brought about
by the clearing of forests together with
lowering of the water level, plowing or other
methods of cultivation, and cattle-grazing.
High insolation and long dry periods follow-
ing brief or only occasional high water levels
are contributing adverse factors. In the
more northern latitudes the cooler winter
temperature also exerts a retarding in-
fluence upon growth.

The growth form of all these palmettos in
the intermediate stage is compact—the
crown is less open and smaller than in those
in optimum habitats, and the aggregation
of boots at the base is very dense, probably
because elongation of the upright trunk
proceeds very slowly. The “‘palmetto-curve”’
of the thick, more or less glaucous, yellow-
or gray-green, abundantly filiferous leaves
is more prominent, as is the inclination of
the two halves of the blade away from the
middle line. The segments are relatively
wider in proportion to the size of the blade.
The characteristic umbrella-collapse of the
dying leaves is pronounced (Pl. 2, lower
right). From a distance, pastures and cut-
- over areas of palmettos resemble fields of
shocked wheat. The thick, branched in-
florescences are shortened and compressed,
often being very similar to those of senes-
cent trees. The lower branches are so close
together in many of the field and pasture
palmettos that the inflorescences have a
bushlike appearance. Failure to develop
inflorescences is not infrequent in palmettos
that are exposed to grazing, plowing, etc.,
but those along fence rows and the margins
of fields that border woods succeed in put-
ting forth inflorescénces in occasional years,
if not annually.

Although the palmettos in naturally ad-
verse habitats (2, 14, and 25) have some-
what larger leaves and boot-aggregations
(3-6 dm) in contrast to the smaller leaves
and boot-aggregations (about 3 dm) of the
intermediate stage of fields and pastures

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

(30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39), the/overall
dimensions fall within the same range:
Trunk: Height of boot-aggregation, 3-6
dm. LEAF BLADE: Expanse, 12-15 dm;
length in middle line, 6.7—-9.2 dm; rachis
length, 13-22 cm; number of segments, 32-
40 (usually 32-38); widest segments, 3.8—
5.7 cm; very filiferous. Prrio.te: Length,
45-95 cm; width nearest blade, 2-4.5 cm;
width near base, 2.8-5.7 cm. INFLOREsS-
CENCE: Height, 20—-28.5 dm; width at base
of inflorescence stalk, 3.2-5 cm; number of
sterile spathes, 9-12; number of fertile
spathes, 10-17; length of lowest branches,
up to 4.5 dm.

The palmettos, with boot-aggregations
and branched inflorescences, that grow in
certain cultivated alluvial areas of Louisiana
have not previously been identified as S.
louisiana, but they represent an intermedi-
ate stage just as surely as do the luxuriant
specimens of intermediate form in favorable
localities where the relationship is more
obvious.

The stocky specimens growing in the
open in pastures or abandoned fields, es-
pecially in central and northern Louisiana,
frequently occur in large numbers. A suc-
cession to more vigorous palmettos of inter-
mediate stage but still of the ‘‘field type,”
may sometimes be traced from these open
palmetto areas to the lower-lying, wetter
margins of the pastures or fields, neighbor-
ing woodlands, or up to the edge of small
streams.

The discovery of three arborescent pal-
mettoes in widely separated localities in
Louisiana, where most of the surrounding
countryside has long since been cleared and
put under cultivation, not only suggests
that arborescent Louisiana palmettos were
formerly more common than now, but also,
in my judgment, has a vital bearing upon
the relationship of the intermediate-stage
palmettos that grow in pastures and fields.

The first of these three individuals occurs
in a deep woods just east of Denham
Springs (17). When I last saw it several
years ago, the trunk height was 14 dm, the
leaves were 13 dm broad, and the inflores-
cences attained 36 dm in height—a typical —
climax specimen. It grew near a bayou
branch of the Amite River that is consider-

JUNE 15, 1943 BOMHARD: DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF SABAL LOUISIANA

ably lower than the highway along which
intermediate-growth palmettos of the ‘‘field
type”’ occurred. |

The second lone individual of tree size
has a trunk height of 13.5 dm, and a diame-
ter of 29 cm. It grows in the water of a small

181

coulee that courses through a pasture and
is visible from the road (U. 8. Highway 71),
south of Bunkie (19). This specimen was
flanked at the water’s edge by other Louisi-
ana palmettos of intermediate stage in good
condition, but the palmettos ranging into

Fig. 1— Distribution of Sabal louisiana. The dots on the map represent the more significant and
typical stands or individuals of senescent, climax, or intermediate growth-form in the following locali-
ties: Louristana—1, Along Bayou Sauvage, north of the Chef Road. 2, Frenier Beach, west shore of
Lake Pontchartrain and northwards between Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain. 3, Near Paris
Road, New Orleans, and the general vicinity of Bayou Bienvenue. 4, Along Bayou Sauvage, from
Micheaud to the Chef Menteur Pass. 5, East of Mandeville, north shore of Lake Pontchartrain. 6,
Manchac and other stations on the northwest shore of Lake Maurepas. 7, Between Gonzales, along
New River, and Sorrento. 8, West of Shell Beach (on Lake Borgne) along Bayous Yscloskey and La
Loutre. 9, West Pearl River, near Indian Village. 10, South of Buras and not far from the Mississippi
River, vicinity of Bayous Grand Liard and Petit Liard. 11, Bayou des Allemands, near Des Allemands
Station. 12, Bayou Villars, near the upper end of Bayou Barataria. 13, Bayou Dupont. 14, From Golden
Meadow to a distance below Leeville, along Bayou Lafourche. 15, East of Berwick Bay and Morgan
City along Bayous Black and Chacahoula (Chacahoula swamp), and southward along Bayou Shaffer.
16, Near Intracoastal City, Vermilion River. 17, East of the Amite River along a small bayou near
Denham Springs. 18, Between Port Barre and Opelousas, in the vicinity of Bayou Teche. 19, Eight
miles south of Bunkie. 20, Near the Tensas River, 84 miles west of Ferriday. 21, North of U. 8. High-
way 65, northwest of St. Joseph. 22, East of Rayville. ARKANSAS—23, Bayou Bartholomew, west of
Montrose. ALABAMA—24, Tensas River delta north of Mobile Bay, west of Hurricane. 25, Eastern
shore of Escambia River, at head of Pensacola Bay. Texas—26, East of U. S. Highway 59, just south
of Cleveland. 27, East Fork of the San Jacinto River, about 4 miles south of Cleveland. 28, San Bernard
River bottom, 8 miles west of Brazoria. 29, Lavaca River bottom, west of Lolita. The solid triangles
indicate large groups of the ‘‘pasture or field type’”’ (intermediate stage); the cross-hatched triangles,
palmettos of reduced “field type” that require further study: Lourstana—30, West fork of Calcasieu
River, near Westlake. 31, Near Welch, not far from Bayou Lacasine. 32, An area roughly bounded by
Beggs, Palmetto, and Port Barre. 33, Between Comite and Puckett. 34, Between Bayou Boeuf and the
Red River, near Alexandria. 35, Various localities, near Rayville. FLorrpa—36, Near Holley, south
of the Yellow River. 37, Apalachicola River, east of Blountsville. Texas—38, San Bernard River,
north of Hungerford. 39, Hog Bayou, about 8 miles south of Port Lavaca. 40, North of Rockport,
ere shore of Copena Bay. 41, On the Blanco River, south of Blanco. Map prepared by Leta

ughey. :

182

the pasture had only short boot-aggrega-
tions and diminished crowns. Willows, a few
baldeypress trees, American honeylocust,
and giant cane are associated with them in
the pasture. The large baldcypress trees at
the margin of an extensive swamp can be
seen in the distance.

The third arborescent specimen occurs
near Rayville (22), along a small stream in
a mixed woodland, bounded by a cottonfield
on one side and passing gradually into a
cypress-tupelo swamp on the other. It is not
so well developed as the two just mentioned.
The palmettos along the nearby fence row
(Pl. 2, lower right) are of intermediate “‘field
type.” In the cottonfield on the other side
of the fence row, and in countless areas
round about, the palmettos are regarded as
troublesome weeds. Following plowing, cot-
ton is frequently planted in the midst of
palmettos, which are not only low and im-
poverished in appearance but unable to put
forth inflorescences.

The complete range of S. louisiana is,
even with the additional data herein pre-
sented, imperfectly known. The dots on the
accompanying map (Fig. 1) represent lo-
calities in which I have studied arborescent
or near-arborescent specimens (senescent,
climax, or intermediate forms) of S. louzsz-
ana as well as the group discovered in Texas
by Mr. Vines. The solid triangles indicate
localities where the ‘‘field or pasture type’’
of S. lowistana is predominant and where
sufficient study of the individuals in the
field and of the flowers and fruits in the lab-
oratory leaves no question as to their iden-
tity. It is not possible to give, on such a
small-scale map, an accurate picture of the
density of the palmetto populations in the
respective areas. A dot may represent a sin-
gle tree or a group. Several dots indicate ex-
tensive continuous or discontinuous stands.
A solid triangle in all cases represents a
tract of palmettos. The cross-hatched tri-
angles indicate localities (36, 37, 40, and 41)
where palmettos have been observed that
appear to be S. louzszana but require further

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

investigation of their flowers and fruits.
Similar plants also occur in an alluvial area
west of Charleston, 8. C., and in a few other
places not shown on the map.

There are numerous other palmetto areas,
both within and beyond the known range
of Louisiana palmetto, in which it is difficult
to distinguish between the acaulescent S.
minor and juvenile or dwarfed forms of S.
louisiana, especially specimens that do not
come into flower or fruit. Although much
field work has already been done throughout
the purported range of S. minor, further
observation and a somewhat different ap-
proach through morphological studies is
necessary for a better understanding of
these two species.”

23 My interest in native palmettos began in the
New Orleans area while I was a member of the
faculty of Tulane University (until 1932). A
survey of Louisiana and some neighboring re-
gions was made from May to November, 1933.
Thereafter additional surveys and rechecking of
areas previously visited were carried out during
vacation periods from Washington, D. C., either
in June or November (the flowering and fruiting
seasons of S. lowistana). Grateful acknowledg-
ment is made to former students and coworkers
at Tulane University, especially Anna L. Haas,
who accompanied me on many field trips and
rendered assistance in the collection of material,
measurement of specimens, and pH determina-
tions of soil samples; to Mrs. J. R. Fowler, Dr.
Mike Wright, and Dr. John W. Bick for help on
various expeditions; and to Dr. Harley N. Gould
and Dr. W. T. Penfound for extending the facili-
ties of their respective laboratories to me subse-
quent to 1932. I am also indebted to G. D. Cain,
County Agricultural Extension Agent, for in-
formation in connection with the palmettos of
Richland Parish (Louisiana) and neighboring
cotton-growing regions; Eloise R. Bomhard, who
accompanied me on several surveys; E. L. Dem-
mon, director of the Southern Forest Experiment
Station (New Orleans), as well as a number of
present and former Station staff members for
numerous courtesies and assistance; Dr. B. C.
Tharp, University of Texas, for cooperation and
aid on field trips near Austin; and to various
persons, who made prompt and helpful replies to
my inquiries, especially Hula Whitehouse, Texas
Memorial Museum.

The kind cooperation of Mr. Vines and Dr.
Longley has already been mentioned. Thanks are
also due Percy Viosca, Jr., of New Orleans, W. A.
Dayton, U.S. Forest Service, and Dr. Penfound
for reviewing the manuscript.

June 15, 1943

BOTAN Y.—Two new basidiomycetous fungi parasitic on nematodes.'

DRECHSLER: TWO NEW BASIDIOMYCETOUS FUNGI

183

CHARLES

DRECHSLER, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Among several fungi set forth in an earlier
paper (4) as attacking nematodes after the
usual manner of parasites, by intrusion of
hyphal elements arising through germina-
tion of adhering conidia, were included two
species which from their production of
clamp-connections were obviously to be
reckoned among the Basidiomycetes. The
two species, it was clear, were intimately
akin to one another; yet owing to somewhat
incidental differences in the make-up of
their sporulating apparatus they could not
both be assigned satisfactorily to any one
mucedinaceous genus then available. Ac-
cordingly a new genus, Nematoctonus, was
erected in which they were described under
the names JN. tylosporus and N. leiosporus.
Subsequently two other forms, similarly
parasitic on free-living nematodes, and simi-
larly provided with clamp-connections,
have been observed in transparent Petri-
plate cultures. These two forms, which like
those presented earlier have more than ordi-
nary interest, since they represent basidio-
mycetes habitually subsisting on animals
that normally remain in a motile state from
the time of hatching until the approach of
death, are described herein as additional
species of Nematoctonus.

One of the two species came to light on
September 1, 1942, in a maize-meal-agar
plate culture that on August 24, 1942, had
been planted with the softened stem of a
newly damped-off tomato seedling from a
greenhouse at the Bureau of Plant Industry
Station near Beltsville, Md. The fungus,
when first observed, was barely visible to
the naked eye as a very delicate arachnoid
weft festooned over a portion of the decay-
ing tomato material. It failed to spread to
other areas of the original culture, ap-
parently for the reason that in its initial
development all individuals of the suscepti-
ble species of nematode had been extermi-
nated. However, when a small quantity of
the delicate weft was transferred to another
Petri-plate culture, which likewise had been

1 Received March 24, 1943.

started on August 24, from a damped-off
tomato seedling, and which likewise had af-
forded ample development of free-living
eelworms soon after the agar substratum
became permeated with mycelium of Pyth-
zum irregulare Meurs, the arachnoid fungus
resumed its destructive activity on a larger
scale. Everywhere in the second culture it
parasitized a single nematode species that
manifestly was identical with the species it
had exterminated in the original culture.
The eelworm in question was determined by
Dr. G. Steiner to belong to a group of forms
that have been cited in the literature rather
indiscriminately under the binomial Rhab-
ditis monhystera Bitschli.

During the earlier stages of invasion the
assimilative mycelium within an infected
nematode is usually obscured very badly by
the globulose materials resulting directly
from degeneration of the host tissues. Later,
when these globulose materials have in large
part been appropriated by the fungus and
have been utilized for the production ex-
ternally of conidiophorous filaments (Fig. 1,
A, a, b), the assimilative hyphae are better
discernible. In some instances the empty
membrane of the conidium (Fig. 1, A, c)
that initiated the attack may then still be
seen attached to the outside of the host
integument, its prolongation in the empty
germ hypha visibly communicating with the
mycelium inside. Occasionally the empty
envelopes of several conidia operative in ac-
complishing infection may be seen attached
to the dead animal. The quantity of as-
similative mycelium, however, would seem
little influenced by the number of adhering
spore envelopes, for multiple hyphae are
readily produced by branching. Frequently
branches arise directly from, or in close
proximity to, clamp-connections, though
some clamps having no special positional
relationship to branches are usually present.
Occurrence of clamps without relationship
to branches or to any other lateral out-
growths could be noted also in external
hyphae that happened to lie submerged for
considerable distances under the surface of

C. Drechsler det.

Fig. 1—Nematoctonus pachysporus, drawn to a uniform magnification with the aid of a camera
lucida; 1,000 throughout. A, Anterior portion of nematode host permeated with assimilative my-
celium from which one hypha, a, has been extended into the surrounding agar culture medium, while
another hypha, b, has been extended into the air; the two external hyphae, from want of space, being
shown in sections whose proper continuity is indicated by the two sequences of paired letters, t—-v and
w-z, respectively; c, empty envelope of conidium, attached externally, from which the assimilative
mycelium had its origin. B, Portion of conidiophorous hypha, bearing conidia on two longish sterig-
mata, a and b. C, Portion of conidiophorous hypha bearing solitary conidia on three short sterigmata,
a-c. D, Conidia, a-x, showing variations in size and shape previous to germinative development.
EH, Conidia, a-s, showing variations in germinative development. F, Portion of conidiophorous hypha
with two sterigmata, @ and 6, whereon are borne solitary ovoid spores destined for conversion into
resting spores. G, H, Portions of conidiophorous hypha, each with an ovoid spore soon to be converted
into a resting spore. J, Three ovoid spores before conversion into resting spores. J, Portion of conidio-
phorous hypha showing an echinulate resting spore borne on asterigma. K, Resting spores, a-g, showing
variations in size, shape, and echinulation.

June 15, 1943

the agar culture medium (Fig. 1, A, a).
A submerged position, of course, is not a
usual one for the external, conidiophorous
filaments. Most often they grow out some-
what ascendingly into the air to attain
lengths ranging from 1 to 1.5 mm. As their
development continues they sooner or later
decline to the substratum, so that eventu-
ally they come to lie prostrate in areas where
the surface is smooth, or are draped loosely
over prominences in more rugged areas. Oc-
casionally a conidiophorous filament may
grow out in a procumbent posture.
Whatever their posture may be, the aerial
filaments become studded at intervals with
clamp-connections, which often give rise, on
short narrow sterigmata, to erect strobili-
form conidia (Fig. 1, A, b; B, a, 6). Conidia
may, however, arise without any close posi-
tional relationship to clamp-connections
(Fig. 1, C, a). Sometimes a conidium is
borne almost sessile on the parent filament
in close proximity to a clamp-connection
(Fig. 1, C, b); or, again, it is attached, with-
out any noticeable sterigma, directly to the
dorsal side of a clamp (Fig. 1, C, c). Ordi-
narily its original strobiliform shape (Fig. 1,
D, a-x) is soon modified as the result of
germinative development. A short broad
process is extended usually from the distal
end (Fig. 1, #, a) or, in rare instances, from
the basal end (Fig. 1, E, b). This process
gives rise at its tip to a globose adhesive
body, measuring usually 3 or 4u in diameter,
and consisting apparently of a narrowed
hyphal termination together with a layer of
glutinous secretion (Fig. 1, EH, c—l). There-
upon the outgrowth may resume elongation
(Fig. 1, #, m-o) to produce terminally a
second adhesive body (Fig. 1, EH, p, q).
Elongation may then be resumed again,
with eventual development of a third ad-
hesive body (Fig. 1, EH, 7). In some instances
where a germ outgrowth is put forth from
the basal end as well as from the distal
end, one of the outgrowths may form a
single adhesive body while the other may
produce two such bodies (Fig. 1, FE, s). The

transfer of protoplasmic materials required |

for such incipient germinative development
is accompanied by vacuolization and evacu-
ation usually of the basal portion of the
conidium, and by collapse of the emptied

DRECHSLER: TWO NEW BASIDIOMYCETOUS FUNGI

185

portion of conidial envelope. Occasionally
the entire protosplasmic contents may mi-
grate into the stout germ outgrowth (Fig.
en):

In addition to the colorless thin-walled
conidia discussed so far, the fungus pro-
duces resting spores. These likewise are
mostly borne on short sterigmata arising
from clamp-connections or in close proxim-
ity to clamp-connections (Fig. 1, F, a, b;
G; H). During their earlier stages of de-
velopment they resemble conidia, though
usually they may be distinguished even
then by their broader ovoid shape (Fig. 1,
I, a—d). In their ripe condition (Fig. 1, J)
they have a perceptibly yellowish colora-
tion, and individually are surrounded by a
thicker wall, which sometimes is modified
externally with bullate sculpturing (Fig. 1,
K, a, 6), but oftener is closely beset with
slender spiny protuberances (Fig. 1, K, c-g).
As these resting spores have never been
seen to germinate, it may be presumed that
like the resting spores of Nematoctonus
tylosporus they are adapted for tiding over
unfavorable periods.

The greater thickness of its conidia rela-
tive to the conidia of the three known con-
generic species suggests the epithet pro-
posed for the fungus.

Nematoctonus pachysporus, sp. nov.

Hyphae assumentes incoloratae, irregulariter
ramosae, plerumque 2-3.5u crassae, in modum
Hymenomycetum septato-nodosae, intra ver-
miculum nematoideum viventem crescentes,
post mortem animalis aliquot hyphas fertiles
extra emittentes; hyphis fertilibus incoloratis,
simplicibus vel parce ramosis, primo plerumque
ascendentibus postea procumbentibus, medio-
criter septato-nodosis, vulgo 0.5-1.5 mm longis,
2.2-3.2u crassis, conidia vel sporas perdurantes
quandoque protinus ex nodis quandoque ex
sterigmatis singulatim gerentibus; sterigmatis
erectis, 0.5—5u longis, basi 1-2.5u crassis, apice
0.6—lu crassis; conidiis incoloratis, primo con-
tinuis et erectis, levibus, elongato-ellipsoideis
vel strobiliformibus, plerumque 12-19, longis,
4—5.5u crassis, ex apice vel rarius ex basi
hypham germinationis brevem erectam emit-
tentibus; hac hypha 1-3 corpora glutinosa 2.5—
5.5u crassa deinceps proferente. Sporae perdu-
rantes continuae, ovoideae, flavidae, verrucosae

=
8
:
3
s)
3
~)
S

Fig. 2.—Nematoctonus leptosporus, drawn to a uniform magnification with the aid of a camera lucida;
1,000 throughout. A, Young specimen of Bunonema sp. to which are attached four germinating
conidia whose vacuolate condition indicates that each may be extending an infective hypha into the
animal. B, Nematode host permeated with a mycelium from which five hyphae, a-e, have begun to
grow externally. C, Portion of conidiophorous hypha with two sterigmata, a and b, each bearing a
single conidium that shows no apical adhesive modification. D, Portion of conidiophorous hypha with
two denuded sterigmata, a and b. H, Detached conidia, a-e, showing variations in size and shape before
undergoing apical modification. F, G, Portions of conidiophorous hypha, each with two branching
sterigmata, one of them, a, bearing two spores, v and w, while the other, b, supports three spores, y-z.
H, Portion of conidiophorous hypha with a branched sterigma bearing four conidia, a-d, all modified
at the apex. I, Conidia, a-f, each of which formed an adhesive knob at its apex before becoming de-
tached from its sterigma. J, Conidia, a-o, that after falling on moist agar culture medium have each
sent up a delicate apical process terminating in a small adhesive knob.

June 15, 1943

vel crebre echinulatae, 10—13u longae, 5.5-7.5u
crassae.

Vermiculum nematoideum Rhabditis mon-
hysterae adfinem enecans habitat in radicibus
Lycopersici esculenti putrescentibus prope
Beltsville, Maryland.

Assimilative hyphae colorless, irregularly
branched, mostly 2 to 3.5u wide, provided with
clamp-connections, developing within living
nematodes, after death of host animal giving
rise externally to several conidiophorous hy-
phae. Conidiophorous hyphae colorless, simple
or somewhat branched, at first usually ascend-
ing, later prostrate or festooned on the sub-
stratum, commonly 0.5 to 1.5 mm. long, 2.2 to
3.2u wide, at moderate intervals (mostly 10 to
75u) forming clamp-connections, producing
solitary conidia or solitary resting spores some-
times directly on clamp-connections and at
other times on sterigmata 0.5 to 5u long, 1 to
2.5u wide at the base, 0.6 to lu wide at the apex.
Conidia erect, colorless, smooth, at first con-
tinuous, elongate-ellipsoid or strobiliform,
mostly 12 to 19u long, 4 to 5.5u wide, before or
after disjunction usually becoming partly evac-
uated of contents in giving rise at the apex or
more rarely at the base to a short erect process
whereon are borne successively 1 to 3 globose
adhesive bodies 2.5 to 5.5u in diameter. Resting
spores aseptate, yellowish, ovoid, at maturity
warty or strongly echinulate, measuring mostly
10 to 13 in length and 5.5 to 7.5 uw in width.

Destroying a species of nematode belonging
to the Rhabditis monhystera group, it occurs in
decaying roots of Lycopersicon esculentum near
Beltsville, Md.

The other species of Nematoctonus to be
presented herein was found developing
abundantly in Petri plates of maizemeal
agar, which after being permeated with
Pythium mycelium had been further planted
with pinches of friable leaf mold taken from
deciduous woods near Fairfax, Va., on No-
vember 10, 1942. In these cultures it sub-
sisted exclusively on a species of Bunonema
introduced with the forest refuse. Invasion
of the small eelworm was manifestly ini-
tiated by continued germinative develop-
ment of adhering conidia (Fig. 2, A, a—d),
though owing to optical difficulties arising
from globulose degeneration of the host tis-
sues, not to mention further difficulties at-

DRECHSLER: TWO NEW BASIDIOMYCETOUS FUNGI

187

tributable to pronounced sculpturing of the
host integument, the progress of mycelial
advance could not be followed. However,
after the granular materials had been largely
appropriated the assimilative mycelium was
revealed, though often only rather indis-
tinctly, as a branching system of hyphae
studded here and there with clamp-
connections (Fig. 2, B). Usually before
this somewhat transparent condition came
about, conidiophorous filaments were being
extended over the surface of the adjacent
substratum (Fig. 2, B, a-e).

These filaments, while still elongating,
give rise at moderate intervals to erect
tapering sterigmata (Fig. 2, C, a, b; D, a, b),
each bearing at its tip a slender, slightly
tapering, rod-shaped conidium (Fig. 2, C,
y, 2) whose apex in the beginning shows no
special modification (Fig. 2, H, a—-e). Some-
times a sterigma grows directly from a
clamp-connection but more often it arises
some little distance backward from a clamp,
that is, some little distance nearer the origin
of the filament (Fig. 2, C, a, 6; D, a, b).
After the individual sterigma (Fig. 2, F, a;
G, a) has produced its first conidium (Fig. 2,
F, v; G, v), it ordinarily continues in its re-
productive function by putting forth a short
lateral spur on which a second conidium is
formed (Fig. 2, F, w; G, w). Many sterig-
mata thereupon will put forth a second
lateral spur, and thus will come to support
three conidia (Fig. 2, F, x-z; G, 2-z). In
mature portions of conidiophorous hyphae

' some sterigmata can be found bearing as

many as four conidia, each, of course, borne
on a separate sterigmatic tip (Fig. 2, H,
a-d).

Branched sterigmata bearing two or three
conidia are nearly always to be found in
proximity to a corresponding number of
clamp-connections (Fig. 2, F, G). Apparent-
ly the clamps of later origin are formed in
successively more distal positions.

Soon after they have been cut off by a
basal septum, the conidia undergo notice-
able germinative development. Those that
remain supported on their sterigmata pro-
duce at the tip a globose knob consisting of
a glandular part thinly surrounded with
adhesive secretion (Fig. 2, F—H; I, a-f).
Those that become detached and fall on a

188

moist surface produce a similar adhesive
knob terminally on a delicate, erect or
ascending process extended from the tip
(Fig. 2, J, a-o). The materials required
for this germinative development are sup-
plied through evacuation of protoplasm
from the basal portion of the conidium. To
separate the living portion of the spore from
the emptied portion at least one retaining
wall is laid down. In instances where pre-
sumably the movement of protoplasm takes
place rather slowly, two (Fig. 2, J, a, b, m,
n, 0) or even four (Fig. 2, J, k) retaining
walls may be laid down successively.

Comparable development of adhesive
knobs on delicate processes arising from
fallen conidia has not been noted in Nema-
toctonus tylosporus. The fungus differs fur-
ther from JN. tylosporus in its markedly
stronger tendency toward production of
conidia plurally on branching sterigmata.
Its conidia, moreover, are appreciably nar-
rower and longer than those of N. tylo-
sporus, and, of course, pronouncedly nar-
rower and longer than the conidia of N.
letcosporus and N. pachysporus. A term hav-
ing reference to its slender spores may
therefore serve as an epithet sufficiently de-
scriptive to set the fungus apart from the
three known congeneric forms.

Nematoctonus leptosporus, sp. nov.

Hyphae assumentes incoloratae, plus mi-
nusve ramosae, plerumque 2—3.5u crassae, in
modum Hymenomycetum septato-nodosae, in-
tra vermiculum nematoideum viventem cres-
centes, post mortem animalis aliquot fertiles
hyphas extra emittentes; hyphis fertilibus
incoloratis, saepius procumbentibus, modice
septato-nodosis, vulgo 250—750u longis, 1.6—2u
crassis, conidia ex erectis sterigmatis gerenti-
bus; his sterigmatis inter se saepius 35—65u
distantibus, 5-10y altis, basi 2.5-4u crassis,
sursum attenuatis, apice .5-ly crassis, primo
simplicibus, postea 1-3 ramusculos emittenti-
bus, itaque vulgo 2 vel 3 etiam quandoque 4
conidia proferentibus; conidiis incoloratis,
bacillaribus, sursum leviter attenuatis, utrinque
obtusulis vel rotundatis, 21-28 longis, 1.7—2.2u
crassis, primo continuis et protoplasmatis
omnino repletis, mox in parte infera vacuis et
apice tuberculo glutinoso circa 2u crasso praedi-
tis, postea tuberculum ejusmodiin apice hyphae

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

erectae vel ascendentis 3—10u longae .6u crassae
ferentibus.

Vermiculum nematoideum speciei Bunone-
matis necans habitat in humo silvestri prope
Fairfax, Virginia.

Assimilative hyphae colorless, provided with
clamp-connections, somewhat branched, mostly
2 to 3.5u wide, developing within living nema-
todes, after death of host animal producing
several conidiophorous hyphae externally; coni-
diophorous hyphae colorless, usually prostrate,
commonly 250 to 750u long, 1.6 to 2u wide,
forming clamp-connections at moderate inter-
vals, giving rise to conidia on erect sterigmata;
the sterigmata spaced mostly at intervals of 35
to 65yu, at first simple, commonly 5 to 10 high,
2.5 to 4u wide at the base, tapering upward.
mostly 0.5 to lu wide at the tip, later usually
putting forth 1 to 3 lateral spurs and by pro-
ducing a conidium on each spur eventually
coming to support 2 or 3 or sometimes even 4
conidia; the conidia colorless, staff-shaped,
tapering slightly toward apex, somewhat ob-
tuse or bluntly rounded at both ends, mostly
21 to 28u long and 1.7 to 2.2u wide, at first con-
tinuous, later often empty at the base and pro-
vided at the tip with a globose adhesive knob
about 2u wide, or after falling off producing
such a knob terminally on an erect or ascending
process, 3 to 10u long and 0.6 wide, that is
extended obliquely or perpendicularly from the
tip.

Parasitic on a species of Bunonema in leaf
mold near Fairfax, Va.

With respect to outward shape the knob-
bearing outgrowth commonly produced by
the conidium of Nematoctonus leptosporus
after falling on a moist surface offers curious
similarity to the empty basal appendage on
the conidium of Euryancale sacciospora
Drechsl. (3) as well as to the proximal por-
tion of the conidium of Harposporium oxyco- ©
racum Drechsl. (4). This similarity would
seem in large measure illustrative of con-
vergence, since the three fungi, remote from
one another taxonomically, all subsist as
obligate parasites on nematodes of the genus
Bunonema. The adaptive modifications here
concerned may well have been developed
to facilitate attachment of the conidia to the
strongly sculptured integument so charac-
teristic of the host animals in their adult
condition.

June 15, 1943

In Nematoctonus pachysporus the develop-
ment of adhesive bodies plurally, together
with the frequently pronounced exhaustion
of the spore, makes for an appearance not
wholly unlike that offered in the develop-
ment of basidiospores on basidia. The
homologies thus suggested can not readily
be dismissed until adverse cytological evi-
dence has been brought foreward, or until
structures have been discovered more
closely corresponding to basidia than any I
- have observed hitherto. The plural adhesive
bodies, it is true, are almost certainly of the
same character as the single adhesive knobs
formed in the three congeneric species; but
the possibility remains that these single
knobs, however commonplace their appear-
ance, might yet represent abortive basidio-
spores modified for adhesion. Nevertheless,
the thin-walled aerial spores still seem best
interpretable as conidia, especially since in
their manner of formation they offer strong
parallelism with the binucleate conidia de-
scribed by Nobles (5) as being produced on
clamp-bearing mycelia of Cortictum in-
crustans Hohn. & Litsch. If the four para-
sitic species so far described all produce

typically straight conidia, the Hawaiian.

nematode-capturing fungus to which refer-
ence was made earlier (4, p. 780) and which
almost certainly is intimately related to the
parasitic species, produces conidia that re-

FRIEDMANN: A NEW RACE OF THE SHARP-TAILED GROUSE

189

semble those of C. zncrustans in being of
curved allantoid shape. i
Their constant production of clamps
rather definitely removes all five of the
fungi habitually subsisting on eelworms
from close kinship with Septobasidium Pat.,
a large genus of basidiomycetes whose para-
sitism on scale insects, affirmed by Reinking
(6) in 1919, has more recently been set forth
in detail by Couch (2). On similar grounds
they must be considered taxonomically re-
mote from Uredinella Couch, likewise a
genus of basidiomycetes parasitic on scale
insects, since at least in U. coccidiophaga
Couch (1), just as in all species of Septo-
basidium, clamp-connections are absent.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Coucu, J. N. A new fungus intermediate
between the rusts and Septobasidium.
Mycologia 29: 665-673. 1937.

(2) . The genus Septobasidium. 480

pp. Chapel Hill, N. C., 1938.

(3) Drecuster,C. Five new Zoopagaceae de-

structive to rhizopods and nematodes.
- Mycologia 31: 388-415. 1939.

Some hyphomycetes parasitic on
free-living terricolous nematodes. Phyto-
pathology 31: 773-802. 1941.

(5) Nosues, Mitprep K. Production of coni-

dia by Corticium incrustans. Myco-
logia 29: 557-566. 1937.

(6) Remnxinc, O. A. Diseases of economic
plants in southern China. Philippine
Agr. 8: 109-135. 1919.

(4)

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new race of the sharp-tailed grouse.| HERBERT FRIEDMANN,

U.S. National Museum.

Snyder’s papers on the sharp-tailed
grouse,” in spite of certain faults, may be
said to have furthered our knowledge of this
bird more than any that went before. A
recent study of this species, based on over
200 specimens, indicates, however, that
parts of Snyder’s arrangement of races
needs alteration. These changes, herein pro-
posed, have to do, firstly, with the birds of

‘ Published by permission of the Secretary of
age cP bnonian Institution. Received April 38,

2 SNYDER, L. L., A study of the sharp-tailed
grouse. Univ. Toronto Stud., Biol. Ser., 40 (2).
1935; A revision of the sharp-tailed grouse with a
description of a new race. Occ. Pap. Roy. Ontario

Mus. Zool., no. 2. 1935; Great Plains races of the
sharp-tatled grouse. Auk 56: 184-185. 1939.

the far Northwest, which he calls kennzcottzz,
and secondly with the ranges of jamesz
(which includes the campestris of Snyder’s
first two papers) and of campestris (with
which Snyder’s campisylvicola is synony-
mized).

To take the northwest Canadian and the
Alaskan birds first, we find that a series of
topotypical kennicotti: from Fort Rae and
Fort Simpson, differ markedly from a long
series (40 specimens) from Alaska south-
eastward to Tagish Lake on the Yukon-
British Columbia border and to extreme
Northern Alberta. Inasmuch as there seems
to be no name available for the Alaskan
birds, it is proposed to call them—

190

Pedioecetes phasianellus caurus, n. subsp.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 298189. ad. o&, collected
at Fairbanks, Alaska, October 19, 1921, by
O. J. Murie.

Subspectfic characters.—Differs from kenni-
cottit in having the feathers of the upperparts
much more broadly and abundantly barred
with brown and, on the mantle, with white,
and with the white spots larger, the feathers
of the breast white, edged with dark olive-brown
(instead of dark buffy brown with only a nar-
row white shaft stripe) ; from jamesi (as under-
stood in this paper—the bird of the Great
Plains from central Alberta to northeastern
Colorado) this form differs in being much
darker, more black showing above, the brown
barrings darker, and the edgings of the breast
feathers darker; from columbianus it differs in
being darker and larger.

Description of type.-—Forehead fuscous to
fuscous-black, the feathers tipped with dark
snuff brown; feathers of the crown and occiput
similar but crossed with widely spaced whitish
bars and tipped with cinnamon-buff; the pale
bars more abundant, less widely spaced on the
lateral coronal feathers, and blending into a
fairly definite whitish or buffy whitish super-
ciliary stripe on each side; nape like the sides of
the crown but washed with pale ochraceous-
buff; “‘mantle,”’ i.e., interscapulars, fuscous-
black broadly barred with white, the more
distal bars, especially on the more posterior
feathers, washed with pale ochraceous-buff;
feathers of sides of neck and of breast similar to
anterior interscapulars; back, rump, and upper
tail coverts fuscous-black, broadly but incom-
pletely barred with cinnamon-buff to tawny-
Olive, the latter color often sparsely vermicu-
lated with fuscous-black and broadly tipped
with pale cinnamon-buff to pinkish buff, dark-
est on the back and becoming paler on the rump
and upper tail coverts; scapulars and inner
median and greater upper wing coverts like the
upper back but with the brownish areas more
extensive (at the expense of the blackish parts)
and each feather with a large terminal white
wedge-shaped spot; rest of the upper wing
coverts and the secondaries grayish olive-brown

externally incompletely and sparsely barred -

with white, the coverts with terminal white
spots on their outer webs, the secondaries com-
pletely edged with white on the tips of both
webs; primaries grayish olive-brown with white

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

spots on the outer webs; median rectrices pink-
ish buff longitudinally and transversely marbled
with fuscous-black; the next pair largely
fuscous-black tipped with white and with their
outer webs mixed with white; lateral rectrices
white with dusky smudges along the shafts;
circumocular region fuscous-black; lores, sub-
ocular stripe, cheeks, and auriculars pale
ochraceous-buff dappled with dusky, the dusky
markings concentrating on each side to form a
fairly distinct malar stripe; the auriculars
tipped with fuscous-black; chin and upper
throat whitish suffused with pale ochraceous-
buff and with many small pale clove-brown
spots; lower throat white, the feathers nar-
rowly edged with dark olive-brown; breast
feathers white with heavy margins of dark
olive-brown; feathers of sides and flanks white
barred with dark olive-brown, the more pos-
terior of these feathers with considerable
tawny-olive on their outer webs and with the
dark bars darker—clove-brown to almost fus-
cous; upper abdomen and sides of lower abdo-
men white with a few small dark olive-brown
subterminal V-shaped marks; center of abdo-
men and under tail coverts white, sometimes
tinged with pale ashy buff; thighs pale light
cinnamon-drab, the distal tarsal plumes paler,
more whitish and very long, covering all but
the claw of the middle toe.

Females in comparable (autumn and winter)
plumage are like the male but their median
rectrices are more strictly transversely barred,
less longitudinally marbled with blackish than
are those of the male.

Measurements of type—Wing 207; tail 114;
culmen from anterior end of nostril 11.8; tarsus
43; middle toe without claw 38.2 mm.

Thirteen adult males measure as follows:
wing 196-212 (203.2); tail 113-125 (118.7);
culmen from anterior end of nostril 10.3-11.8
(10.9); tarsus 40.4-44.3 (42.3); middle toe
without claw 36-39.2 (38.1); height of bill at
base 10.3-12.4 (11.5 mm).

Thirty-three adult females measure: wing
190-202 (196.3); tail 107-119 (111.9); culmen
from anterior end of nostril 9.9-11.9 (10.8);
tarsus 39.2-42.8 (41.2); middle toe without
claw 35.7-39.3 (37.5); height of bill at base
10.9-12.5 (11.8 mm).

Range.—This form occurs from north-central
Alaska (Circle, Fairbanks, Tanana, Tanana
Crossing, north Fork Kuskokwim River, Delta

JUNE 15, 1943

and Taklat Rivers) to the southern Yukon
Province (Tagish Lake on the Yukon-British
Columbia border) and to extreme northeastern
Alberta (Fort Chipewyan, Smith Landing,
Fort Smith, Peace Point).

The separation of this new form leaves P. p.
kennicottt with a much restricted range, oc-
cupying merely northern Mackenzie (Fort Rae
to Fort Simpson). This form is very distinct
from caurus; in fact it is nearer to, but easily
told from, typical phastanellus of the Hudson
Bay region.

Turning now to the birds of the Great Plains
and the Prairies, we find, if we take birds in
fresh autumn plumage, that specimens from
the Prairies (Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
and southern Manitoba) are more rufescent
(ochraceous-tawny to almost hazel) on the
upper parts, while birds from the Great Plains
(north-central Alberta, central Saskat hewan,
most of Montana, the Dakotas, W;, uining,
western Nebraska, and northeastern Colorado)
have the upperparts buckthorn brown or grayer.
The prairie birds are obviously P. p. campestris
(type locality—Illinois), while for the less
rufescent birds of the Plains the name james?
(type locality—Castle Rock, Colo.) is available.
In the latter race there is a slight paling in the
southern part of the range, but on the whole it
seems ill-advised to attempt to separate Al-
berta birds from specimens from Wyoming and
Colorado. Northern jamesi shows an approach
toward caurus. Good series of both jamesi (86
adults) and of campestris (18 adults) have been
examined in this connection. The characters on
which jamesi was originally proposed do not
seem to mean much, but the name is neverthe-
less applicable to the group as here defined.
It is the most variable of all the races of the
sharp-tailed grouse. .

_ The ranges of typical phastanellus and of
columbianus are essentially correctly given by
Snyder, but the range of the latter should be
extended to the Modoc region, northern Cali-
fornia.

KEY TO THE FORMS OF PEDIOECETES
PHASIANELLUS

a. Darker above, the black or dark fuscous areas
predominating, giving an appearance of a

FRIEDMANN: A NEW RACE OF THE SHARP-TAILED GROUSE

191

dark bird barred with buffy brown and spot-
ted with white.

b. Upperparts very dark, the brownish bar-
rings and edges and tips of the feathers of
the mantle and upper back much reduced,
the marks in the inner portions of the
vanes very narrow or absent; feathers of
the breast dark buffy brown with only
narrow white shaft stripes (central and
northernMiacken7zie))...45 2. sae 6 dew. ote
Pedioecetes phasianellus kennicottii Suck-
ley

bb. Upperparts less dark, the brownish barrings
and edges and tips of the feathers well de-
veloped.

c. White spots on the upper parts much re-
duced; feathers of breast pale buffy
brown with fairly broad white shaft
stripes (Hudson Bay region). . Pedioe-
cetes phasianellus phasianellus (Lin-
naeus)

cc. White spots on the upper parts large and
prominent; feathers of breast white,
merely edged with dark olive-brown
(Alaska, the Yukon District to extreme
northern British Columbia)...........
Pedioecetes phastanellus caurus, n. subsp.

aa. Paler above, the brown areas larger, the
blackish ones more hidden, giving the ap-
pearance of a brownish bird mottled with
blackish.

b. Brown of upperparts more rufescent—
ochraceous-tawny to almost hazel (Illi-
nois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and southern
VAIO lod) eerie ae estonia neees eee mae he ecee es
Pedioecetes phasianellus campestris Ridg-
way

bb. Brown of upperparts less rufescent—buck-
thorn brown to tawny-olive.

ec. Smaller and paler; tail averaging less than
110 mm; height of bill at base averaging
12 mm; brown of upperparts tawny-
olive (from north-central British Co-
lumbia to northern California (Modoc
region), Nevada, Utah, and southwest-
Crm COlORadO) ee an eee ee eee es
Pedioecetes phasianellus columbianus

(Ord)

cc. Larger and darker; brown of upperparts
buckthorn brown; tail averaging over
115 mm; height of bill at base averaging
13 mm (Great Plains and from north-
central Alberta, central Saskatchewan,
to (all but extreme western) Montana,
the Dakotas, Wyoming, western Ne-
braska, and northeastern Colorado)...
Pedioecetes phasianellus jamesi Lincoln

192

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 6

Obituary

Harry Joun McNicuouas was born in Ply-
mouth, Wis., on October 29, 1892, and died in
Washington, D.C., on July 23, 1942, of heart
failure.

Mr. MeNicholas graduated from the Ply-
mouth High School in 1910, entered Ripon
College in 1911, and ‘‘worked his way” to the
A.B. degree in 1915. During his last two years
in college he defrayed his expenses by acting as
assistant mail carrier. For diversion he played
a trumpet in the Ripon College Band. This is
mentioned because it played a part in shaping
his subsequent career. The writer, having previ-
ously played a trombone in this band, joined
the staff of the Bureau of Standards in 1914,
and for amusement organized a small orches-
tra, but no trumpet player could be found on
the staff. In 1915 we wrote to Professor Barber
at Ripon College suggesting that the pending
Civil Service examination be called to the at-
tention of his best physics student, especially if
he played a trumpet. Mr. McNicholas took
this examination and promptly accepted an ap-
pointment as laboratory assistant in the Col-
orimetry Section, where he worked on color
standardization until 1926. He was then trans-
ferred to the Textile Section to initiate re-
searches on the physical structure of cellulose
and rubber, including Réntgen-ray analysis.
When depression curtailed this work in 1933,
Mr. MeNicholas was detailed for a year to in-
vestigate optical properties of glass and other
materials used in identification lights on air-
planes, then appointed to work on the utiliza-
tion of wasteland products, and finally on pH
standards in the Chemistry Division. In Febru-
ary 1941 he was engaged in defense work on
methods of establishing acidity of lubricating
and transformer oils and gasolines. His ability,
industry, and scientific work were rewarded by
successive promotions from laboratory assist-
ant to full physicist.

Being studious by nature, Mr. MecNicholas

enrolled for many graduate courses in physics
and mathematics given at the Bureau of
Standards from 1915 to 1937. In 1924 he re-
ceived an M.A. degree and in 1926 a Ph.D.,
both from the Johns Hopkins University. Un-
like the men who think their formal education
is completed when the Ph.D. is awarded, Dr.
MeNicholas continued to attend classes for
specialized study of such topics as the inter-
pretation of data, probability and statistics,
and chemical thermodynamics.

His name appears on a score of scientific
papers published since 1919. In a series of im-
portant papers of which he was sole author he
demonstrated that he had exceptional talents
for instrument design, for analysis of scientific
observations, and for lucid literary exposition.
The following, published as research papers in
the Journal of Research of the National Bureau
of Standards, deserve special mention: Absolute
methods in reflectometry (RP3), Equipment
for routine spectral transmission and reflection
measurements (RP30). The visible and ultra-
violet absorption spectra of carotin and
xanthophyll and the changes accompanying
oxidation (RP337), Equipment for measuring
the reflective and transmissive properties of
diffusing media (RP704), Color and spectral
transmittance of vegetable oils (RP815), and
Selection of colors for signal lights (RP956).

Dr. MecNicholas possessed a quiet, modest,
and unassuming but genial disposition, and he
had a large number of friends who always called
him by his nickname, ‘‘Pat.”’ After many years
of sedentary life in crowded apartments he
purchased a home and yard and took great
pleasure in landscaping and gardening activi-
ties, which he liked to begin at daybreak.

In 1916 he married Gertrude M. Weingarten
of Ripon, Wis. He is survived by his mother and
four sisters, his wife and daughter, Mrs. Kath-
lyn Fitzgerald, and four grandchildren.

WILLIAM F. Mreacrrs

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CONTENTS

EcoLocy.—Progress in utilization standards for western ranges. |
CAMPBMUL 0p 5 os Pu Oe Na ae ee

ORNITHOLOGY. an! new race of ine sharp-tailed grouse.
FRIEDMANN... Rg he ey fet

Oxsiruary: Harry Jonn McNicuonas................
This Journal is Indexed in the Taierhational iodex to Periodicals . 4
\

Juuy 15, 1943 No. 7

JOURNA

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

Thomas Jefferson and science.'

VIRGINIA IN JEFFERSON’S TIME

The career of every man is largely a prod-
uct of his time and environment, of his
birth, early surroundings, education, and
associates, especially the associates of the
formative period of his youth. No true ap-
praisal of any man can be made without
some knowledge of his background and of
the influences that surrounded him, es-
pecially in his early years.

In Jefferson’s time, Virginia had already
acquired an enviable scientific tradition as
a result of the work of Harriott, White,
Hamor, Rolfe, the Claytons, Bannister,
Mitchell, Glover, Catesby, Tennent, Carter,
Lee, and others. Unfortunately the printed
records do not give a complete picture of
science in Virginia in the early colonial days,
partly because of the scarcity and cost of
paper, most of which was imported from
Europe, chiefly from the continent. Nearly
all the paper mills in America were situated
in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and their
output was for local consumption.

In Jefferson’s early days Virginia was to
a considerable extent a feudal state, more
or less on the English model, most of its
best land being held by large landed pro-
prietors. With the rapid opening up of the
Piedmont, on which great estates worked
by slave labor were not so practicable as
they were on the flat and rich Coastal Plain,
various social problems were beginning to
arise. At the same time Virginia, now fairly
well settled, was beginning to feel herself
quite competent to manage her own affairs
and was becoming restive under the domi-
nation of the English parliament, for she

* Received April 16, 1943.

JuLy 15, 1943

No. 7

Austin H. CuarK, U. 8. National Museum.

regarded herself as a sister rather than as a
child of England.

Jefferson was a product of the Piedmont
area, then almost a frontier region, and,
though peculiarly fortunate in the circum-
stances of his birth and education, he did
not view social conditions in the same light
as did his aristocratic friends of the great
estates on the rich and long settled Coastal
Plain, with whom, however, he was always
on the best of terms.

His sympathetic appreciation of the at-
titude both of the southern aristocracy and
of those who, living in the wilder portions
of the great new country, were trying to
settle, cultivate, and organize the great
wilderness, and his ability to harmonize
their two viewpoints, can be really under-
stood only in the light of his early environ-
ment and upbringing.

EARLY ENVIRONMENT, EDUCATION, AND
ASSOCIATES

Peter Jefferson lived at Shadwell in
Goochland, now Albemarle, County, Va.,
an unusually beautiful region of mountains,
rolling hills, and river bottoms, its plant
and bird life as diversified as its scenery,
its lowlands with abundant relics of the
former Indian inhabitants. He was-a sur-
veyor, and one of ability, for to him belongs
the credit for preparing the first accurate
map of Virginia, the so-called Jefferson and
Fry map, published in London in 1775
under Jeffreys, the Royal Geographer. His
wife was the former Jane Randolph, eldest
surviving child of Isham Randolph of
Dungeness, Goochland County, a _ well-
known lover of plants, who corresponded
with Peter Collinson in England and with
other famous botanists of that time.

193

194

Their son Thomas had a great respect for
his father’s map, and from him, as suggested
by Dumas Malone, he doubtless acquired
much of his zest for exploration and draw-
ing, and his liking for untrodden paths.
From him, perhaps, he also acquired his
fondness for mathematical subjects. From
his mother’s side he may have inherited
that love of plants that throughout his life
was so very characteristic of him, and his
interest in birds.

On the death of his father in 1757 Thomas
was placed under the guardianship of a
neighbor, Thomas Walker, physician, sol-
dier, and explorer, who had been with
Braddock at Fort Duquesne in 1755 and
who had traveled extensively in that vast
area which at that time was included in
western Virginia. According to Thomas P.
Abernethy, Thomas Walker was typical of
that company of bold spirits who explored
and exploited the early frontiers—a man of
action rather than of words.

In 1760 young Thomas entered the Col-
lege of Wiliam and Mary, unusually well
prepared by long attendence—since the age
of five—at an excellent school, the so-called
‘English School,” of which he personally
had formed a poor opinion. At Williams-
burg he found surroundings that for a keen
young man with the widest possible in-
terests were ideal. At that time the titular
governor of Virginia was John Campbell,
Earl of Loudoun, but the government was
administered by the leutenant governor,
Col. Francis Fauquier, a true friend of
Virginia and the Virginians, a devotee of
the sciences who had been elected a Fellow
of the Royal Society in 1753, and a director
of the South Sea Company in 1751. With
Colonel Fauquier there had come to Vir-
ginia in 1758 Dr. William Small, of Birming-
ham, who first held the chair of mathe-
matics at William and Mary, and later that
of philosophy, ad interim. These two de-
lighted in the society of young men, and at
Colonel Fauquier’s table, where Dr. Small
was a constant attendant, the youths of
Virginia, Thomas Jefferson, John Page,
John Walker, James McClurg, and others,
“learned their lessons in the rights of men.”’
In later years Jefferson referred to Dr.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

Small as the man who had fixed the desti-
nies of his life, and John Page eulogized
him as ‘‘the illustrious professor of mathe-
matics... the darling friend of [Erasmus]
Darwin.” He might have added that he was
also an intimate friend of James Watt.

At William and Mary, Jefferson and Page
became fast friends, sharing their ideas and
confidences. It was to Page that Jefferson
wrote the letters that reveal his youthful
romance with ‘“‘the fair Belinda,’ who later
married Jacquelin Ambler. The correspond-
ence between Jefferson and Page covered
50 years without a trace of discord, and 30
years after their William and Mary days
Jefferson declared to Albert Gallatin that
he loved Page like a brother. In the election
for governor of Virginia in 1779 Jefferson
and Page were pitted against each other.
Jefferson was denounced as a radical and
Page as a tool of the Tories. The two candi-
dates announced their platforms and retired
to their estates, leaving the campaigning
to their partisans. After the election, when
Page sent congratulations to his victorious
opponent, Jefferson replied that he derived
special satisfaction from the fact “‘that the
difference of the numbers which decided
between us, was too insignificant to give
you a pain, or me a pleasure, had our dis-
positions towards each other been such as
to admit those sensations.’’ Page, who was
heutenant governor under Patrick Henry
and later (1802-5) governor, spent much
of his time in scientific investigations. With
his friend David Jameson he was interested
in astronomy and made experiments in the
accurate measurements of the fall of rain
and dew. He also suggested, as early as
1779, the identity of magnetism and elec-
tricity. For a time he was president of the
Virginia Society for the Promotion of Useful
Knowledge, at Williamsburg, a group that
sought to play in Virginia the role of the
Royal Society in London. In later years he
confessed that he did not think he had made
great proficiency in any study, for he was
too sociable to shut himself off in solitude as
did his friend Jefferson.

John Walker was a son of Thomas Jef-
ferson’s guardian, Thomas Walker. He sub-
sequently served on the staff of General

Jury 15, 1943

Washington as an extra aid with the rank

of colonel, and also served in the United
States Senate, by appointment from the
Governor of Virginia, to fill the vacancy
caused by the death of William Grayson.
He was elected a member of the American
Philosophical Society in 1770.

James McClurg was a more serious stu-
dent than either Jefferson, Page, or Walker.
After graduating from William and Mary
he attended the medical school at the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh, from which he gradu-
ated as a Doctor of Medicine in 1770. While
there he was a prominent member of the
Virginia Club, an organization composed of
Virginians studying at the school. After
graduation he devoted some time to post-
graduate medical studies in Paris and Lon-
don, returning to Virginia in 1773. During
the Revolution he was active as a surgeon
in the Virginia militia, being referred to in
the official records as physician-general and
director of hospitals for the State. He was
professor of anatomy and medicine at Wil-
liam and Mary from 1779 to 1783, after
that living in Richmond. He was elected a
member of the American Philosophical
Society in 1774, and was also a member of
the Virginia Society for the Promotion of
Useful Knowledge. He was a member of the
Philadelphia Convention, and later of the
Executive Council for Virginia during the
early years of Washington’s administration.

He was regarded as one of the most eminent

physicians in the State and was president
of the State medical society in 1820 and
1821. The first volume of the Philadelphia
Journal of Medical and Physical Sciences
published in 1820 was dedicated to him.
According to James Madison. Dr. Mc-
Clurg’s talents were of the highest order,
but he was modest and unaccustomed to
exert them. Possibly his interest in his pro-
fession precluded any pronounced ambition
toward a political career. Jefferson main-
tained a close friendship for McClurg, for
whom he seems to have had great respect.

Such were the favored associates of young
Jefferson at William and Mary, mature
men of exceptional ability, sympathetic
with, and fond of, the young, and young
men of unusual promise. He graduated in

CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE

195

1762 at the age of 19 with a reasonably
thorough reading knowledge of Latin,
Greek, and French, and a familiarity with
the higher mathematics and with the
physical sciences rarely possessed by young
men of his age. Fortune favored him still
further, for after graduation he entered the
law offices of George Wythe, then the
leader of the Virginia bar, whom he de-
scribed as ‘“‘the best Latin and Greek
scholar in the State,” and as a ‘‘faithful and
beloved mentor in youth and most affec-
tionate friend through life.”

He was admitted to the bar in 1767 after
five years of study. After his admission to
the bar he practiced law with more than
usual success, and was elected to the House
of Burgesses in May, 1769, and appointed
surveyor of the County of Albemarle in
1773. From this time on he became more
and more intensively interested in politics;
though his interest in science never di-
minished, he was seldom able to devote
much time to it.

PERSONALITY

At the time of his admission to the bar he
was described as 6 feet 2 inches tall, slim,
erect as an arrow, with angular features, a
very ruddy freckled complexion, an ex-
tremely delicate skin, full deep-set hazel
eyes, and sandy hair. Known to his friends
as ‘‘Long Tom,” he was a gay companion,
an expert musician, the violin being his
favorite instrument, a good dancer, a dash-
ing rider, and proficient in all manly exer-
cises. He was then, and continued to be
throughout his life, frank, earnest, cordial,
and sympathetic in his manner, full of con-
fidence in men, and sanguine in his views of
life. He seems to have been a recognized
member of the closely knit social group
made up of the children of the great families
of Virginia.

As a mature man he had by nature a
scientific mind, and he once remarked that
“the tranquil pursuit of science’ was his
‘‘supreme delight.’’ He also wrote that he
was ‘for encouraging the progress of science
in all its branches, and not for raising a hue
and cry against the sacred name of philoso-
phy.” He regarded ‘freedom and science’”’

196

as the prerequisites of progress, and said
that he had ‘‘sworn upon the altar of God
eternal hostility against every form of
tyranny over the mind of man.”

His legal training made him cautious in
drawing conclusions from a series of isolated
facts, and therefore impatient of all theories
not logically deduced from adequate prem-
ises. In a letter to Charles Thompson
written from Paris on September 20, 1787,
he said “‘I wish that the persons who go
thither [to the western country] would make
very exact descriptions of what they see of
that kind [2.e., fossil bones], without forming
any theories. The moment a person forms a
theory, his imagination sees, in every object,
only the traits which favor that theory. But
it is too early to form theories on these
antiquities. We must wait with patience
until more facts are collected.”

He was essentially of a reflective type,
and it was his habit to seclude himself from
time to time, while he diligently studied
some branch of science as a relief from the
grim realities of political and other worries.
This habit of letting his mind li fallow, so
to speak, and thus to clear itself of unimpor-
tant details, probably had much to do with
the brilliant manner in which he viewed
all subjects in the light of their essential
features, without being led astray by super-
ficial emotional aspects.

In everything he did his custom was to
sow the seed carefully, nurse it for a while,
and then, when its successful growth seemed
assured, turn it over to others for its further
development and ultimate fruition, usually
under his stimulation and guidance. In
science, as in everything else, he followed
this line. And so it happens that, judged
from the record, his main scientific interests
were in those lines that were most backward
and in which vigorous and intelligent leader-
ship was most needed, especially those lines
that would ultimately prove of greatest
value to the people.

Perhaps the most remarkable and out-
standing feature of Jefferson’s character
was his complete freedom from personal
jealousy. Freedom of thought was no mere
political phrase with him. Everyone, ac-
cording to him, was entitled to his own

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

ideas. Naturally, he differed with many
people, but these differences he never took
personally. A good illustration of this is
seen in his attitude toward the contest be-
tween himself and John Page for the
governorship of Virginia. He had an im-
mense number of loyal friends, many of
whom disagreed with his political outlook,
though they never distrusted his sincerity.
Dr. George Gaylord Simpson rightly says
that “it is a measure of his greatness that
Jefferson continued his powerful aid to
paleontology and his warm friendship with
its students even when it became evident
that this aid and these students were reveal-
ing the falsity of views that he had vehe-
mently and almost religiously expressed and
maintained during the greater part of a long
life.”’

JEFFERSON’S SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS

As a scientific man Jefferson was inter-
ested in all lines of science, but in all rather
as an enthusiastic, highly appreciative,
and intelligent amateur than as a profes-
sional. He had no time to make himself
thoroughly proficient in any one line. The
working out of the details he left to others,
whom he assisted and encouraged to the
best of his ability. His tremendous enthusi-
asm, which continued unabated, or perhaps
even increased, during his term of office as
President of the United States, was a most
important factor in bringing before the
people the value of science.

Tangible evidence of Jefferson’s many
and varied scientific interests is furnished by
his contributions to the proceedings and
collections of the American Philosophical
Society in Philadelphia, of which he was
elected a member, together with George
Washington, in 1786, after the death of
David Rittenhouse succeeding him as the
third president of the Society on January 6,
1797. His contributions to the Society’s pro-
gram and collections were in the fields of
meteorology, chemistry, economic entomol-
ogy, archeology, vertebrate paleontology,
and applied mechanics in reference to agri-
cultural operations.

On December 17, 1779, there was re-
corded in the Society’s proceedings a letter

JuLy 15, 1943

from Rev’d Wm. Maddison (s7c), president
of William and Mary College, containing
‘fa, series of Meteorological Observations by
His Excellency Governor Jefferson and him-
self separately, for a year and a half; like-
wise a set of Experiments on what are called
‘Sweet Springs’.”” On April 15, 1791, on
motion of Jefferson, a select committee
(consisting of Jefferson and four others)
was appointed to collect materials for form-
ing the natural history of the Hessian fly
and determining the best means for its pre-
vention or destruction ‘“‘and whatever else
relative to the same may be interesting to
agriculture.”’ On August 19, 1791, he pre-
sented to the Society ‘‘a curious piece of
Indian sculpture, supposed to represent an
Indian woman in labor, found near Cumber-
land River, Virginia.” On August 19, 1796,
his letter to Rittenhouse (deceased) de-
scribing bones of extraordinary size found
beyond the Blue Mountains in Virginia [in
a cave in Greenbrier County, W. Va.] ‘‘ap-
pearing to be of the Tyger-lion & Panther
species’ was read by Dr. Barton. Under
date of March 10, 1797, we read: ‘‘Jef-
ferson’s memoire ‘On the Discovery of cer-
tain Bones of a Quadruped of the [space of
four lines left blank].’ A resolution was
passed ordering the memoir to be put in the
hands of the Committee of Selection of
Publications, drawings of the bones to be
_ made by a proper person. Mr. Peale was re-
quested to put the bones ‘in the best order
for the Society’s use’.’”’ These were the
bones of the famous Megalonyz, the first
giant sloth found in North America, and
formed the subject of the only scientific
memoir ever published by Jefferson, which
appeared in 1799. On January 19, 1798, he
presented to the Society bones of a mam-
moth “some time ago found in Virginia.”
On April 20, 1798, he presented a hand
threshing machine invented by T. C. Mar-
tin of Virginia, ‘‘which he had procured to
be made.” On May 4, 1798, a “‘Description
of a Mould Board of the least resistance,
&e.,” by Mr. Jefferson was read and re-
ferred to Mr. Patterson. This is the first
mention of his famous plow. On May 7,
1804, W. Lewis, of Campbell County, Va.,
donated a bone and some rocks through

CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE

197

Jefferson. On April 27, 1805, William Bar-
tram sent some bones to be forwarded
to [Jefferson at] Monticello.

Much more detailed evidence of his ex-
tensive interests 1s furnished by his famous
book on Virginia. In June, 1781, he was in-
jured by a fall from his horse, and he oc-
cupied the leisure forced upon him by this
accident in organizing the abundant and
accurate memoranda that he had accumu-
lated over a series of years. These memor-
anda were arranged in the order of a series
of questions that had been submitted to
him by M. Barbé de Marbois, Secretary of
the French Legation. During the winter of
1782-83 he revised and expanded them and
had them published in Paris in 1784 under
the title of ‘“Notes on the State of Virginia.”’
The date of this work is given as 1782,
which is probably the date of the comple-
tion of the manuscript, as he did not reach
Paris until 1784. Two hundred copies were
privately printed, as the work was not in-
tended for general distribution. According
to Sabin, a copy presented to M. Malherbe
has the following note in Jefferson’s hand
writing: ‘‘Mr. Jefferson having had a few
copies of these notes printed to present to
some of his friends, and to some estimable
characters beyond that line, takes the
liberty of presenting a copy to M. de
Malherbe, as a testimony to his respect to
his character. Unwilling to expose them to
the public eye, he begs the favour of M. de
M. to put them into the hands of no person
on whose care and fidelity he cannot rely, to
guard them against publication.”

This work, however, did not long remain
confidential. A French translation, with a
map, entitled ‘‘Observations sur la Virginie,
par M. J***. Traduit de |l’Anglais,”’ was
published in Paris in 1786, and an English
reprint of the original was published in
London in 1788. The first American edition
was published in Philadelphia in 1788. In
the Virginia Independent Chronicle (Rich-
mond) for Wednesday, December 12, 1787,
we read that “the work will be comprised
in a handsome octavo volume, with an
elegant type and good paper, and delivered
to the subscribers neatly bound and lettered
at the very moderate price of one dollar.

198

The price to non-subscribers will be seven
shillings and six pence Virginia currency
Subscriptions are taken in at Mr.
Davis’s Printing-Office in Richmond, where
a specimen of the work is left for inspec-
tion.”’ A second edition was printed in
Philadelphia in the same year. This was
followed by many other American editions
—Philadelphia, 1792, 1794, 1801, 1812,
1815, 1825; Baltimore, 1800 (two editions) ;
New York, 1801, 1804; Newark, 1801;
Boston, 1801, 1829, 1832; Trenton, 1803,
1812; and Richmond, 1853. There was also
a German translation entitled ‘‘Beschreib-
ung von Virginien,’”’ published at Leipzig in
1789.

This was the first comprehensive treatise
to be published on any section of the
United States. In it were discussed the
boundaries of the State, the rivers, the sea-
ports, the mountains, the cascades, the
mineral, vegetable, and animal productions,
climate, population, military force, marine
force, aborigines, etc. It was the precursor
of that great library of more or less similar
reports that have been issued by the State
and Federal Governments. Measured by its
influence, it was the most important scien-
tific work published in America up to this
time. It laid the foundation for Jefferson’s
high contemporary reputation as a univer-
sal scholar, and for his enduring fame as a
pioneer American scientific man.

Further evidence of his interests is given
by various printed reports, such as his re-
port of July 4, 1790, presented to Congress
on July 13, in which he made suggestions
regarding a plan for establishing uniformity
in the coinage and in the weights and meas-
ures of the United States, the first sug-
gestion of the idea that was subsequently
expanded into the National Bureau of
Standards, and his scholarly report on the
history and economics of the cod and whale
fisheries made to the House of Representa-
tives on February 1, 1791, and published on
January 8, 1872. |

Then there are the manuscript notes left
by him, among which are the extensive
meteorological records kept at Monticello,
his notices of the first appearance of the
birds and flowers in spring, and his compara-
tive notes on Indian languages,

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VOL. 33, NO. 7

But by far the greater part of what we
know regarding Jefferson’s scientific in-
terests is gathered from the great number
of letters that he wrote to various friends
and that were published after his death.

Applied science appealed to him quite as
much as pure science. He was much in-
terested in horticulture and in every form
of agriculture. Botany was always a favorite
subject with him, and he had one of the
best botanical libraries in America, though
on this he never published anything further
than the lists of plants in his ‘‘Notes on the
State of Virginia,’ which includes the first
description of the pecan, written in 1781 or
1782.

Jefferson was an inventor of great in-
genuity, as is made evident at once by a visit
to his home at Monticello. He also had a
keen interest in the inventions of others,
especially those of practical application.
When he was in France he wrote dozens of
letters about inventions. When on a visit to
England in 1786 he made careful notes on
English domestic gardening and on mechan-
ical appliances. He went to northern Italy
in 1787 to inspect machines for cleaning
rice, and in 1788 he made other observations
in Germany. At the time of the creation of
the Patent Office, Jefferson was Secretary
of State. As such, he became ex officio the
Keeper of the Records of the Patents, and
according to Dr. Frederick E. Brasch was
the most active examining member of the
board, and therefore its first administrator.
Dr. Brasch says that the scientific foresight
that he exercised at this time must be con-
sidered the cornerstone of our patent system
and patent laws.

SPECIAL SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS

Jefferson’s keen interest in inventions —
more than anything else gives the key to his
interest in science in general, which was the
ultimate practical application of scientific
discoveries for the good of man. No matter
what line of scientific investigation he
undertook, this idea of ultimate practical
application seems always to have been in his
mind. He seems never to have followed any
line through mere pointless curiosity. Even
in his study of fossils he appears to have
had the idea that some time, somehow, a

JuLy 15, 1943

knowledge of them would prove of value.

Of his numerous and varied scientific in-
- terests, three deserve special mention. First
and foremost was his interest in man in
general, evidenced not only by his political
philosophy but also by his detailed study of
the native Indians and his efforts to improve
their relations with the Europeans, and by
his sympathetic study of the Negroes;
second was his interest in the exploration
and description of the country; and third
was his interest in paleontology.

The French historian and philosopher
Guillaume Thomas Frangois Raynal, usual-
ly called the Abbé Raynal, a leader of the
French freethinkers who was exiled from
France in 1781, had maintained, among
other things, that Europeans had de-
generated in America, and that the Ameri-
can Indians were a degenerate race. Jef-
ferson denied this, and he also denied that
the American Indians are inferior to Euro-
peans in the same state of culture. He also
said he has supposed that the black man,
in his present state, might not be equal to
the European, ‘‘but it would be hazardous
to affirm that, equally cultivated for a few
generations, he would not become so.”’ In
his ‘‘Notes on the State of Virginia” he gave
an excellent account of the Indians and
described the ‘“‘barrows of which many are
to be found all over in this country,” listing
the contents of one in the Rivanna River
bottom. He also described the characteris-
tics of the Negroes in dispassionate detail.

He was greatly interested in the multi-
plicity of radically different Indian lan-
guages and contrasted this with the lack
of diversification among the red men of
eastern Asia. He said that ‘‘the resemblance
between the Indians of America and the
eastern inhabitants of Asia, would induce
us to conjecture, that the former are the
descendants of the latter, or the latter of the
former; excepting, indeed, the Eskimaux,
who, from the same circumstances of re-
semblance, must be derived from the Green-
landers, and thus probably from some of the
northern parts of the old continent.”’

In his ““Notes on the State of Virginia”’
he wrote: ‘‘Were vocabularies formed of all
the languages spoken in North and South
America, preserving their appellations of

CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE

199

the most common objects in nature, of
those which must be present to every na-
tion, barbarians or civilized, with the in-
flections of their names and verbs, their
principles of regimen and concord, and these
deposited in all the public libraries, it would
furnish opportunities to those skilled in the
languages of the old world to compare them
with the new, now or at any future time,
and hence to construct the best evidence of
the derivation of this part of the human
race.’”’ He compiled comparative vocabu-
laries of various Indian tribes, which were
unfortunately stolen; but some fragments
of these are deposited in the American
Philosophical Society’s archives.

Dr. Clark Wissler has pointed out that
at about the same time the Empress Catha-
rine the Great of Russia had adopted the
same approach to the study of languages
and had written to President Washington
for lists of Indian vocabularies.

Jefferson’s practical and sympathetic in-
terest in the Indians is perhaps best il-
lustrated by the instructions given by him
to Capt. Meriwether Lewis in 1803 when the
Lewis and Clark Expedition was about to
be organized. These were as follows: ‘‘The
commerce which may be carried on with
the people inhabiting the lines you will
pursue renders a knowledge of these people
important. You will therefore endeavour to
make yourself acquainted, as far as a dili-
gent pursuit of your journey shall admit,
with the names of the natives and their
numbers; the extent and limits of their pos-
sessions; their relations with other tribes or
nations; their language, traditions, monu-
ments; their ordinary occupations in agri-
culture, fishing, hunting, war, arts, and the
implements for these; their food, clothing,
and domestic accommodations; the diseases
prevalent among them, and the remedies
they use; moral and physical circumstances
which distinguish them from the tribes we
know; peculiarities in their laws, customs,
and dispositions; and articles of commerce
they may need or furnish, and to what ex-
tent. And considering the interest which
every nation has in extending and strength-
ening the authority of reason and justice
among the people around them, it will be
useful to acquire what knowledge you can

200

of the state of morality, religion, and in-
formation among them, as it may better
enable those who may endeavour to civilize
and instruct them to adapt their measures
to the existing notions and practices of
those on whom they are to operate...

“In all your intercourse with the natives,
treat them in the most friendly and con-
ciliatory manner which their own conduct
will admit; allay all jealousies as to the
object of your journey; satisfy them of its
innocence; make them acquainted with the
position, extent, character, peaceable and
commercial dispositions of the United
States, of our wish to be neighbourly,
friendly and useful to them, and of our dis-
positions to a commercial intercourse with
them; confer with them on the points most
convenient as mutual emporiums, and the
articles of most desirable interchange for
them and us. If a few of their influential
chiefs, within practicable distance, wish to
visit us, arrange such a visit with them, and
furnish them with authority to call on our
officers on their entering the United States,
to have them conveyed to this place at the
public expense. If any of them should wish
to have some of their young people brought
up with us, and taught such arts as may be
useful to them, we will receive, instruct, and
take care of them. Such a mission, whether
of influential chiefs or of young people,
would give some security to your own party.
Carry with you some matter of the kine-pox,
inform those of them with whom you may
be of its efficiency as a preservation from
the small-pox and instruct and encourage
them in the use of it. This may be especially
done wherever you winter.”

Dr. O. F. Cook wrote that the traditional
sponsors of the repatriation and coloniza-
tion of the Negroes in west Africa were
Thomas Jefferson and George Washington.
Jefferson studied the racial problem from
many sides, including the need of educating
the more capable Negroes so that they
might furnish the necessary skill and
leadership for the new communities in
Africa. Washington instructed his executors
to provide such education for some of his
freedmen.

Almost immediately after his inaugura-

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VOL. 30, NOe @

tion as the third President of the United
States Jefferson began to make preparations
for developing his long-cherished plans for —
the exploration of the great and unknown
West and the discovery and description of
its vast resources. His secretary, Capt.
Meriwether Lewis, of Albemarle County,
Va., who had long wished to go on an ex-
ploring expedition, was appointed leader of
the first party to be sent out—partly at
Jefferson’s personal expense. Captain Lewis
chose as his chief associate Capt. William
Clark, also of Albemarle County, a younger
brother of Gen. George Rogers Clark. The
choice of these two leaders was a most
fortunate one, and the expedition, which
was in the field from 1803 (the year in
which the territory extending from New
Orleans to British America and westward to
the Rocky Mountains known as Louisiana
was purchased from Napoleon) until 1806
was highly successful. This was the first of
a long series of more or less similar expedi-
tions by which a detailed knowledge of our
great West and of its resources and products
was gradually accumulated. These expedi-
tions, at first individual enterprises, were
later consolidated under the United States
Geological Survey.

Jefferson’s interest in exploration was not
confined to the land areas. Dr. Brasch
writes that in 1806 he made a recommenda-
tion for a Coast Survey to Congress, which
took favorable action on February 10, 1807,
and authorized the President to cause a
survey to be made of the coasts of the
United States, including islands, shoals, and
all other physical features deemed proper
for completing an accurate chart of every
part of the coast. This project was later
organized as the United States Coast (now
Coast and Geodetic) Survey. Dr. Brasch
adds that during Jefferson’s second term the
idea of establishing longitude 0° through
Washington (77°03'58" west of Green-
wich, England) was much discussed. Jef-
ferson’s thorough knowledge of astronomy
and mathematics, together with naviga-
tion, enabled him to give much encourage-
ment to members of Congress who wished
to establish this standard American longi-
tude. This discussion, according to Dr.

Juty 15, 1943

Brasch, eventually led to the establishment
of the Naval Observatory and the Hydro-
graphic Office.

Enthusiasm for vertebrate paleontology
seems to have been awakened in Jefferson
before 1781, after which time he lost no
opportunity for securing and examining
bones. He was always especially interested
in the mastodons, or ‘‘mammoths,’’ and in
the great sloth that he had called Megalonyz.
As in other branches of science, his interest
in paleontology was chiefly that of an en-
thusiastic amateur, and a stimulator of
interest in others. Dr. Henry Fairfield Os-
born has pointed out that in developing his
scientific opinions in regard to paleontology
he at first quoted the current tradition,
later becoming a more serious and inde-
pendent investigator.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition had
brought back a few interesting fossils,
which had whetted Jefferson’s desire for
more. In the summer of 1807 Captain
Clark was sent on another expedition to
Louisiana that took him through the region
of Big Bone Lick, in Boone County, Ky.
_In obedience to President Jefferson’s de-
sires he stopped there and, employing ten
laborers for several weeks, made a large
collection of about 300 bones, which he
shipped to Jefferson at the White House.
Here they were laid out in the then un-
finished East Room, the ‘‘mastodon room,”’
where, at Jefferson’s invitation, and later
at Philadelphia, they were examined by
Dr. Caspar Wistar.

Jefferson’s interest in paleontology while
President, as remarked by Dr. George
Gaylord Simpson, helped to make it a re-
spectable and honored pursuit, and he was
largely responsible for bringing together the
materials necessary for its advancement. He
greatly encouraged the study of vertebrate
paleontology by the American Philosophical
Society while he was president of it. He
also acted for a time as president of the
board of trustees of Peale’s Philadelphia
Museum, which included the first public
exhibition of fossil vertebrates, and the first
mounted fossil skeleton in America. As the
foremost citizen of the young nation, Jeffer-
son’s outspoken and excited interest in fos-

CLARK: THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SCIENCE

201

sils conferred on their study the dignity
and prestige inseparable from his personal-
ity and position. But it also brought down
upon him the ridicule and wrath of many of
his countrymen to whom scientific investi-
gation meant wanton and deliberate neglect
of one’s proper duties, if not, indeed, athe-
ism. This attitude is well illustrated by a
poem written by William Cullen Bryant at
the age of 18, which runs in part as follows:
Go, wretch, resign thy presidential chair,
Disclose thy secret measures, foul or fair,

Go, search with curious eyes for hornéd frogs,
*Mid the wild wastes of Louisianian bogs;

Or where the Ohio rolls his turbid stream
Dig for huge bones, thy glory and thy theme

It is only fair to Bryant to say that this
poem, entitled ‘‘The Embargo,” was pub-
lished not by himself but by his father, Dr.
Peter Bryant, and that he did his best to
suppress it.

JEFFERSON AND HIS VIRGINIAN COLLEAGUES

It must not be supposed that during his
brilliant and eventful career Jefferson was
neglectful of his scientific colleagues in his
native State of Virginia. Before the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society had elected more
than a very few members from Virginia
there was organized at Williamsburg on
November 20, 1773, ‘“‘The Virginia Society
for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge.”’
The charter was signed by six prominent
Virginians, including the Hon. John Page,
then lieutenant governor, who was elected
vice-president, the president being John
Clayton. Of the six who signed the constitu-
tion, John Walker was already a member of
the American Philosophical Society, which
James McClurg joined in the following
year, and Mann Page later.

The notices regarding the activities of
this Society were published in the Virginia
Gazette at Williamsburg. There is no refer-
ence to Jefferson in any of them, but he was
presumably a member, for in a letter written
in 1787 in answer to one from John Page,
who had urged him to accept the presidency,
he wrote that “‘he should feel himself out of
his true place to stand before McClurg,”
who was probably president at the time.

In its early years the society seems to

202

have been well received by the people of the
colony; but after 1774 there are few pub-
lished notices of it, although it appears to
have kept up an organization for a con-
siderable time.

JEFFERSON IN FRANCE

Jefferson was in France from August 6,
1784, to October, 1789, succeeding Ben-
jamin Franklin as Minister in 1785. Dumas
Malone writes that, rightly regarded in
France as a savant, he carried on the tradi-
tion of Franklin, but until the end of his
stay he was overshadowed by Franklin’s
immense reputation. His attitude toward
Franklin, whom he regarded_as the greatest
American, was one of becoming modesty,
without a tinge of jealousy.

At that time France was regarded as the
leader in the biological sciences; but Jeffer-
son thought little of French science. He
vigorously combated what he considered
the disparagement of the American fauna
by Georges Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon,
who maintained that the animals common
to both the Old and the New Worlds are
smaller in the latter; that those peculiar to
the New World are on a smaller scale; that
those which have been domesticated in
both have degenerated in America; and
that, on the whole, America exhibits fewer
species. In order to correct these impres-
sions, Jefferson procured from America at
his own expense and presented to the
Comte de Buffon the bones and skin of a
moose, the horns of another individual of
the same species, and horns of the caribou,
the elk, the deer, the spiked horned buck,
and the roebuck of America. Buffon also
maintained, much to the annoyance of
Jefferson, that the American mastodon, or
‘“‘mammoth,” was the same as the elephant
of Africa and Asia.

He does not seem to have had a very high
regard for Buffon. In a letter to President
Madison of William and Mary he wrote:
“Speaking one day with M. de Buffon on
the present ardor of chemical inquiry, he
affected to consider chemistry but as cook-
ery, and to place the toils of the laboratory
on a footing with those of the kitchen. J
think it, on the contrary, among the most

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VOL. 33, NO. 7

useful of sciences and bzg with future dis-
coveries for the utility and safety of the
human race.”

CONCLUSION

Dumas Malone writes that Jefferson be-
came associated with an extraordinary
number of important societies in various
countries of Europe, as he had long been
with the chief learned, and almost all the
agricultural, societies of America. Much,
but by no means all, of this recognition was
due to his political prominence. On Decem-
ber 26, 1801, he was elected an “associé
étranger’’ of the Institute of France; if this
was by virtue of his position at all, it was
because of his presidency of the American
Philosophical Society. Mr. Malone says
that this signal honor, which during his life-
time was shared by no other man of Ameri-
can birth and residence, may be attributed
to his reputation in France as the most con-
spicuous American intellectual. He himself
modestly interpreted it as “an evidence of
the brotherly spirit of science, which unites
into one family all its votaries of whatever
grade, and however widely dispersed
throughout the different quarters of the
globe.”

Modern scholars, according to Mr. Ma-
lone, have recognized Jefferson as an
American pioneer in numerous branches of
science, notably paleontology, ethnology,
geography, and botany. Living long before
the age of specialization, he was a careful
investigator, no more credulous than his
learned contemporaries, and notable among
them for his effort in all fields to attain
scientific exactitude. 3

But Jefferson saw all these branches of
science not as independent units but as in-
tegral parts of an all-embracing whole that
should be developed for the sake of the
future happiness and prosperity of man-
kind, for the ultimate good of his fellow
men was always in his thoughts. It was this
scientific foresight that led him to advocate
so vigorously the idea that science would be
the cornerstone of our Republic. In 1789 he ~
wrote to President Willard of Harvard:
‘““‘What a field we have at our doors to sig-
nalize ourselves in. The botany of America
is far from being exhausted, its mineralogy

JuLY 15, 1943

is untouched, and its natural history or
zoology totally mistaken and misrepre-
sented .. . It is for such institutions as that
over which you preside so worthily, Sir, to
do justice to our country, its productions,
and its genius. It is the work to which the
young men you are forming should lay
their hands. We have spent the prime of our

ETHNOLOGY.—Paczfic Coast Athapascan discovered to be Chilcotin.}
HARRINGTON,” Bureau of American Ethnology.

LIAM N. FENTON.)

The purpose of this paper is to announce
a discovery of great importance to ethnol-
ogy made on my recent field trip to the
Pacific Northwest. This consists of the dis-
closure that the so-called Pacific Coast
Athapascan, about which much has been
written in the past and which has been com-
pared to Sarcee, Navajo, etc., is composed
of a string of Chilcotin languages straggling
down, and near, the west coast of the United
States proper from what is now southern
British Columbia to almost within sight of
San Francisco, Calif.

The interior of Alaska and of most of
northwesternmost Canada is occupied by a
number of languages of the so-called Atha-
pascan stock. In the forties of the past cen-
tury Hale recognized Umpqua, of what is
now Oregon, as belonging to this stock, and
in the fifties Turner added the Apachean-
Lipanan of the southern deserts and south-
westernmost Great Plains of the United
States to this stock. It became gradually
Clear through further study that the main
body of the Athapascan stock is that of the
far northwest of the North American Con-
tinent, and that from there two linguistic
prongs have extended southward: (1) a
Pacific Coast prong like the letter i (the dot
would represent the Chilcotin), and (2) a

1 Received April 12, 1943.

_? For important assistance in the consumma-
tion of this work, I wish to express my thanks to
the following: The late Prof. Franz Boas, Prof.
Melville Jacobs, Bess Langdon Jacobs, Mrs. James
A. Teit, Prof. Edward Sapir, Prof. P. E. Goddard,
Robert W. Young, Dr. Fang-Kuei Li, and the
Missionaires Oblats de Marie Immaculée, as well
as to various Indian informants who spoke the
languages involved and remembered fragments
of disused ones.

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

203

lives in procuring them the precious bless-
ings of liberty. Let them spend theirs in
showing that it is the great parent of science
and virtue, and that a nation will be great in
both always as it is free.”’

Such was the opinion of Thomas Jeffer-
son, the most versatile and the most in-
fluential of our American scientific men.

JOHN P.
(Communicated by WIL-

more easterly prong accomplished via the
“Great North Trail” along the eastern base
of the Rockies south to where these moun-
tains break down and thence west, or else
via the intramontane region south, like the
letter } (the dot would represent the Lipan-
an). In case of intramontane accomplish-
ment, the } would have been executed hook
first. The present study has succeeded in
eliminating from the general Athapascan
problem the Pacific Coast prong by discov-
ering it to be a unit, having as its northern
head part of the Fraser River drainage of
British Columbia, Canada, and as its
southern extent the zigzag watershed which
bounds to the south Eel River’s Southfork,
in Mendocino County, Calif. The expression
in the Chilcotin languages is just the op-
posite of this; in the manner of Chilcotin
languages Indian talk, the peoples in their
migrating layer on layer southward were
working a language-substitution from the
tail of the earth, which is located at what
is now called Alaska and westernmost Can-
ada, toward the earth’s head, which is
located in the far south. Genetic relation-
ship of the Athapascan languages with the
Tlingit (language of Sitka and Juneau,
Alaska) and the Haida (language of the
Queen Charlotte Islands) was shown by
Sapir years ago. Work done by me a few
years ago showed how close this relationship
is, likeness extending to some 300 features.

Five detached bodies of Chilcotin lan-
guages were worked on:

(1) The most northerly of these was the
Chilcotin proper, which takes its name from
Chilco Lake, just east of the Cascade Range
of mountains, in an easterly direction

204

across the Strait of Georgia from the central
part of Vancouver Island, and one of the
sources of the Fraser River.

(2) The fragmentarily remembered lan-
guage, closely resembling Chilcotin proper,
of the Nicola and Similcameen Valleys,
British Columbia, which had been sketch-
ily made known by Dawson toward the
close of the past century from information
furnished to him by J. W. MacKay, for-
merly Indian agent of Indian Affairs Branch,
Department of Mines and Resources, of the
Canadian Government, stationed at Kam-
loops, British Columbia. A generation or
two before this variety of Chilcotin would
inevitably have become replaced by Eng-
lish, it became supplanted, in the latter half
of the nineteenth century, by Indian lan-
guages of the Salishan stock. Working sep-
arately with eight different informants, I
swept their memory clean of the former lan-
guage and obtained a sizable and important
list of vocables, the best results coming
from the aged chief Ernest Billy and from
his sister Matilda.

The information not only showed that
the all-but-vanished language was Chil-
cotin, but details were volunteered that the
speakers were called Stuwix-mux (Stuwix,
Athapascan name of the Nicola Valley;
Thompson -mux, person), that they made
their last linguistic stand at what is now
spoken of as the reserve at the southwest end
of Nicola Lake, that the spring beside the
Nicola Valley Brewery at the western end
of the city of Merritt was magically created
by them as a never-freezing drinking water
supply and bathing place for the neighbor-
ing village of Teszulle, that these people
used to steal children in order to augment
their tribe, and that they formerly at times
had clashes with the Thompson and other
Salishan speaking bands that surrounded
them. Best of all, came the information that
the Chilcotin are called in the Thompson
language Yuunxanil, a tribal name that has
never been obtained or published on. This
Chilcotin body was an enclave amid
Salishan.

(3) The next Chilcotin language to the
south was Kwalhioqua, occupying the Wil-
lapa River drainage and the adjacent drain-
age of the southern heads of the Chehalis

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VOL. 33, NO. 7

River, in what is now southwestern Wash-
ington, centering about Pee-Ell Prairie (so
called from the Indian pronunciation of
Pierre, first name of a one-eyed Frenchman
who used to farm the flat). This body was a
second linguistic island, surrounded by
alien Salishan and Chinookan.

(4) Another inland island of language
consisted of the Tlatskanai (native pronun-
ciation Laats’qhanayu), who held, in upper,
central, and lower divisions, the valley of
the Claskanie River, a southern tributary
of the Columbia, west of the present city
of Portland, in what is now northwestern
Oregon.

(5) The fifth and last Chilcotin division,
as yet without a general name, was a great
bloc of languages extending from Roseburg,
Oreg., to Laytonville at the head of Eel
Southfork, Calif., cut linguistically only by
the Klamath River and unlike the divisions
mentioned above in that it held many
miles of coast, although the central part of
its coastal holding, from Wilson Creek
mouth, Del Norte County, California, to
just north of False Cape, Humboldt Coun-
ty, Calif., was in Algonkin family linguistie
ownership. This great southernmost Chil-
cotin group constituted seven languages: (1)
Umpqua, or more precisely Upper Umpqua,
who call themselves TY uutaneeyuu (prairie
person); (2) Tututunne, from the head of
the Coquille River to include the lower part
of the Rogue River, Coquille and Shasta-
costa being perhaps the leading languages;
(3) Galice, spoken on Galice and Applegate
Creeks, southern tributaries of the Rogue
River, remarkable for its appearance of n,
n, m as g, d, b, respectively; (4) Smith
River, including Chetco; (5) Hupa, in-
cluding Chilula and Whilcut; (6) Mattole,
including Bear River; and (7) Wailaki, in-
cluding Saya, Lassik, Sinkyone, and Kato.
The farthest south extent of Chilcotin lan-
guages on the coast took in Usal Creek
mouth. The Kato, at the head of Eel South-
fork, abutting the Russian River water-
shed, were a little farther south than the
Sinkyone co-speakers on the coast to their
northwest, and again than the Wailaki co-
speakers on Eel River proper to their north-
east.

Even the Chilcotin is in many features

Juuy 15, 1948

very Hupa-like, Kwalhioqua still more so,
and in Umpqua to Kato one has practically
straight Hupa grammar. For this southern
division, therefore, perhaps a term Hupoid
or Hupan would be practical.

According to meaningful consideration,
the Chilcotin languages consist of the in-
herited morphom (meaningful form or ele-
ment) and its inherited sequencing. The
morphom may conveniently be considered
as having two weights: (1) the theme (main
or lexical meaningful form or element), to
be written, with absence or presence of its
crements, without spacing, and for indicat-
ing its crementless form always without hy-
phenization (the verb in these languages
does not occur crementless) ; (2) the crement
(subsidiary meaningful form or element),
consisting of firmly attached affix or loosely
attached clitic, to be written attached to its
theme without spacing or hyphenization,
but sometimes with hyphenization for per-
spicuity or weight indication. The theme
minus or plus its crement or crements is
termed the etymon (word or vocable), and
it is the etymon that is dictionarized. The
term base is a shortcut for standardized or
extended theme.

There are in the Chilcotin languages four
distinct, differently handled classes of
etyma, or “‘parts of speech’’ to retain the
terminology of the Greek grammarians. Re-
taining the Greek grammarian order of
presentation, these are: noun, pronoun,
verb, and particle. These four etymal classes
reduce into two philosophical classes: noun,
denoting entity, and verb, denoting ac-
tion. The pronoun is a mere category car-
rier, appearing where the noun would be a
more definite painter, or in addition to the
noun. The verb is the equivalent of a pro-
noun-plus-verb-European-sentence. There
are also copula and-posture verbs and the
like, which are to the verb as the pronoun
is to the noun. They are handled as verbs,
just as the pronoun is largely handled as
a noun. The particle consists largely of
adverbs of etymon rank of many forma-
tions, which definitize or add to the painting
accomplished by the verb, and some of
which, or their counterparts, can also be
prefixed to the verb. These four etymal

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

205

classes can be listed and characterized as
follows:

(1) The noun is the label of entity. It ad-
mits of only certain adnominal prefixes and
postfixes.

(2) The pronoun is handled mostly like _
the noun, but merely denotes unit of cate-
gory, usually combinatory unit. The pro-
noun is cut into personic and demonstra-
tive-numeroid divisions. Only the personic
can be prefixed to noun and verb, one set of
prefixes being used before the noun, and
another, split into objective and subjective,
before the verb, with the objective coming
first if both are present. When prefixed to
the noun, the personic becomes modifica-
tory, as does the first member of a noun
plus noun compound, and this modification
has settled into possessive meaning. Nu-
meroid pronouns suggest that numerals be-
long to the pronominal etymal class.

(3) The main part of the anatomy of any
one of these languages is the verb, the base
of which constitutes the last syllable, if
there is no postfix syllable or syllables (com-
pare the position of the verb at the end of
the Latin sentence). Some of the verb
bases assume as many as five phonetically
different forms, but the principal ones for
presenting slighter and fuller? form are the
nonintegral and integral, which two forms
of the verb base are the ones given in the
present paper and in the order of nonin-
tegral first and integral second. Some of the
forms, both nonintegral and integral, of the
verb base show a postfix or the remnant or
reflex of one, as was detected by Goddard
years ago. The nonintegral appears in the
present indefinite and the imperative forms
of Goddard and is the weaker or more re-
duced form of the verb base according to
him, the imperfective of Li, in contradis-
tinction to the integral, Goddard’s past def-
inite, Li’s perfective, which is a stronger
form. Some verb bases have according to
closing consonant a slight and a full form,
and this of nonintegral, or integral, or of
both. Immediately before the verb base
may come one or another, or in one instance
even two together, of four classifiers (taking

3 Or light and heavy, as Indo-Germanic ablaut
forms are termed.

206

this terminology from Tlingit and other
grammar), better called causo-agentive pre-
fixes—four in number if we regard zero, or
lack of classifier, as one of the four. The
force of these prefixes is largely obscured in
the Chilcotin languages. The most contrac-
tional part of the verb is the personic belt,
consisting of personic objective prefix fol-
lowed by personic subjective prefix with
mode and aspect prefixes jammed in be-
tween these, a region of contractions com-
parable in complexity to the vowel contrac-
tions of the Greek verb. This order carries
out the general word order of the languages
of modificatory before main. Starting the
verb, when occurrent, and preceding all
pronominal prefixes, are the many adverbial
prefixes of two positions, even including in-
corporated nouns used as adverbial modi-
fiers.

(4) As the fourth and last etymal class,
there can be lumped together adverbs,
conjunctions, interjections, ete., all of
etymal rank, under the blanket term
anonynon, or particle. This class was
Frachtenberg’s catch-all, but the various
groups of which it consists do have common
characters.

Etymal classes 1, 2, and 4, in contrast to
the verb, have comparatively few possible
forms, and are therefore simple.

Some of the etymal forms have cremental
counterings. Again, the postposition, which
appears in these languages only as a cate-
gory of postfixed transitive adnominal ad-
verbs, may in other languages or writings
have etymal, dictionary weight.

COMPARISON OF SOUNDS

The Chilcotin languages not only consti-
tute a unit of linguistic development but
also contain in Hupa, Mattole, and Wai-
laki, three of their members, preservation
of sounds not even secondary to that of
Tlingit and Haida in uniqueness for the
reconstruction of the phonetic system of all
Athapascan languages, including Tlingit
and Haida. The Chilcotin languages, as
well as Tlingit and Haida, evidence two
back-of-the-tongue series.

The phonetic structure of the Chilcotin
languages is, like that of language in gen-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

eral, an alternation of opener sounds called
vowels, and closer sounds called consonants,
comparable to slap-yelling—a procedure in
syllables. Syllables are termed open or
closed, open when having zero after the
vowel of the syllable, closed when having a
consonant after the vowel of the syllable,
the consonant of course belonging to the
same syllable. In actuality, most Chilcotin
syllables are closed, either by a postvocalie
consonant different from the one that starts
the next syllable or by the doublish pro-
nunciation of what would be otherwise a
single intervocalic consonant whether with-
in or between words. One can furthermore
in all the Chilcotin languages divide the
syllable closing consonants, into light and
heavy closers, the light being on the whole
slighter and including zero, and the heavy
having fuller closing.

Language suffers changes and splittings.
Changes, especially of sound, can be termed
processes. |

Reconstruction of a sound, morphological
element, or word, won through comparison,
of necessity synchronic in North America
north of Mexico, is a device surely wrong in
actuality, but nevertheless one that serves a
temporary purpose. No amount of compar-
ing of Romance forms would win back Latin
with certainty even to the extent of a single
word, though Italic dialects, Keltic, and
Greek and careful procedure were to guide.
The reconstruction of pre-Chilcotin is
ephemeric but is comparable to a setting
up of linguistic stocks in South America
temporarily advantageous to the ethnolo- —
gist.

The reconstruction of sounds is simpler
than that of vocables in that vocables con-
sist mostly of more than one sound. Taking
a clue from the patent traveling backward
of t to k in Lipanan (a group of Athapascan
languages of the southwesternmost Great
Plains), I spent considerable time in work-
ing out the assumption that Hupa k, x”,
etc., are frontals in antiquity that traveled
toward the rear (like Swedish maskin, en-
gine, becoming macin, and in dialect
max*ina), but two indications made it
plain that this assumption was wrong: (1)
Related bunches of vocables in the lan-

Jury 15, 1943

guages themselves proved _ back-of-the-
tongue origin; (2) the genetically related
Tlingit and Haida proved _ back-of-the-
tongue origin. It became apparent that the
traveling of sounds has been in the same
outward direction which in several centuries
turned popular Latin k into the s-sound of
French.

Of course, all reconstruction takes us
back only one jog, only to the extent of one
chunk of time.

The assuming of a definite reconstruction
form of any kind is by necessity more or less
arbitrary. Even such a matter as to whether
kh, x, or k is more ancient as a starter of
the word for fire, must remain forever un-
settled. It would not even be safe to guess
that the more complex, which is kh in this
instance, has been reduced.

Writing employs to a large extent differ-
ent symbols for voiceless and for voiced
consonants, and this tends to make the
sounds in writing appear more different
than they actually are in the mouth. For
instance, English Siwash, and the French
word sauvage, from which it comes, really
have last sounds the same except for the
matter of voicing, but the spelling makes
these last sounds look very different.

Abbreviations of language names, such as
Chil. for Chilcotin, used in presenting forms,
do not require explanation. But Shastace. is
used for distinguishing Shastacosta from
Shasta.

VOWELS

_ Asin Semitic, differences in vowels in the
Chilcotin languages are not so important
as differences in consonants.

A tendency is that a short vowel of an
open syllable in the north appears largely as
long in the south: Chil. si, I; Wai. cii. Chil.
téhe, stone; Wai. tshee.

There are several ablauts, or vowel mu-
tations, notably that of o alternating with
a, and that of e or i alternating with a.

Vowels occur short or long, as do con-
sonants. Since the length of long consonants
is conditioned by the simple rule that in-
tervocalic consonants are long, all con-
sonants are to be written short. But long
vowels must rigidly be written long.

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

207

A nasalized vowel is, as in French, the re-
sult of an original syllable-closing -n, which
nasalized more or less its preceding vowel,
and was retained, changed to yn, or disap-
peared altogether, even the nasalization it
produced disappearing in certain forms. Or
a nasalized vowel is the result of a preceding
nasal consonant.

Chil. -na, eye. The quality of a is more
open than that of a (a modification of 1),
with which it ablauts for instance in some
verb bases.

o—u

o and u are variations of the same sound.
There is a tendency to pronounce a glide ¥
between a dorsal consonant and this vowel
(as for instance in Russian k’é6mnata,
room). It is a trait of several of the North-
west linguistic stocks and also of the Chil-
cotin languages that o labializes following
dorsal consonant even through h preceding
that consonant: Coq. c-xe’, my foot;
neenuh-xwe’, our feet. In Tlingit, in some
instances, even the a-sound labializes a fol-
lowing dorsal consonant.

In addition to inherited o—u, Chilcotin
also shows a transformed from o after a
labialized dorsal: kwat, knee (for *kW¥ot);
khwan, fire (for *kh¥on).

Chil. ta-ne, person. e and i are kept dis-
tinct. Occasionally in a setting that would
turn i to a, I have heard e almost so turned,
e.g., Navajo Tshé-khooh, Chaco, literally
stone canyon, i.e., box-canyon, almost tsha-
khooh.

I have mentioned under o above one
source of Chilcotin a from ancient o. An-
other and still commoner source of a is from
i, conditioned to this extremely open form
by contiguous consonant or consonants.
Chil. tat, smoke.

VOWEL DIPHTHONGS

Vowel diphthongs are as in Tlingit and
Haida of the class known as false, consisting
of mere juxtaposition of two vowels of dif-
fering quality (Frachtenberg’s au or aww,
as in English hooey in rapid tempo, in con-

208

tradistinction to his a® or aw). Any occur-
rent vowels of qualities different from each
other may come together to make such a
diphthong. Especially when one of the
vowels is long, the false diphthong hovers on
the border of being pronounced as two sylla-
bles. Nasalization of one vowel diphthong
member is infectious to the other. Vowel
triphthongs rarely occur.

SYLLABO-INITIAL CONSONANTS

Originating consonants travel different
roads of development as to whether they
start or close a syllable. It is therefore prac-
tical to prepare two lists of consonants, one
of syllabo-initial consonants, the other of
syllabofinal consonants, both drawing on
the main or lexical elements of the lan-
guages. For restoring the originating con-
sonants, Hupa, and to some extent Mattole
and Wailaki, are important, since they pos-
tulate a palatalized or forward dorsal series
reminding one of the separate forward series
of Tlingit and Haida. For writing Tlingit
and Haida, x, x, etc., are employed for the
rearward series, k, x, etc., for the forward;
however, mere k, x, etc., for the rearward-
related and k, x, etc., for the forward-re-
lated are used in writing Hupa.

LARYNGEALS

In the Chilcotin languages nearly all
vocables that would begin with a vowel
have before this a momentary laying to-
gether of the moist glottal cords identical
with the hamzated alif of Arabic and
written by the apostrophe. Chil. ’a-thi, non-
human trail. A few vocables begin directly
with vowel, for instance, Chil. s-at, my wife.

h- is rare, but occurs as the consonant of
interjections, including the particle yes, and
of song padders.

DORSALS
k-
Chil. -ket, -ket, to spear (fish).
k’-
Chil. k’a, arrow.
kh-
Kwal, khasxee, chief; Coq. xasxee.

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VOL. 33, NO. 7

When the original following vowel was e
or 1 after a dorsal, the rearward of two back-
of-the-tongue series is to be postulated, for
all the languages retain kh- or the like.
Chil. khe, foot; Hupa -khe’. Tlingit x’us,
foot, is a rear series cognate, but Tlingit
khé, khén, to track, also occurs.

X-

Though kh- largely appears as x- in the
southern languages through declusivizing,
when an originating x- is assumed there is
no proof that x- was ever anything but a
fricative.

Hupa is the only Chilcotin language, the
only Athapascan language in fact, that still
forms the word and prefix meaning I, my,
on the back of the tongue, as Tlingit does,
even Mattole and Wailaki presenting only
forms leveled to c and the like. Hupa x”e,
I; x“i-, my. Tlingit xa, I; ’ay-, my. Chil. si,
I; Wai. cii. It is only upon referring to other
stocks that we find k-, etc., meaning I, my.

When the original following vowel was o,
glide ¥ developed before it after a dorsal:
Chil. su’, all right; -zu, to be good; Hupa
-x”on, to be good.

When the original following vowel was e
or i after a dorsal, there is no way to tell
whether the consonant belonged to a sep-
arate palatalized series, since the appear-
ance in Hupa both of *x- and of *x- is x¥-.
Chil. can, -yan, song; Hupa x*in.

Chil. -ra, bodyhair. Tlingit yaw, body-
hair.

When the original following vowel was o,
glide ¥ developed before it after a dorsal.
Chil. -r’u, tooth. Tlingit ux, tooth.

When the original following vowel was
perhaps 1, there is no way to tell whether the
consonant belonged to a separate palatal.
ized series. Chil. ya#, snow; -xaé, -xaé to
snow.

DORSALS LABIALIZED

rw-
Chil. -rwit, -rwat, to break intransitive-
w is in these languages lowered from rw.
DORSALS PALATALIZED
ike
Chil. -xat, -xat, to fear; Hupa -kit, -kit.

Juny 15, 1943

Chil. -k’ul, -k’al,
Hupa -k’il, -k’il.

to tear transitive;

kh-

When the original following vowel was 0,
no glide * develops. Chil. -tcho, large, aug-
mentative postfixed particle (but Chil.
-tchoh, to become large, with retention of
of original -x as -h); Hupa -khoh.

When the original following vowel was e
or i after a dorsal, the forward of two back-
of-the-tongue series is to be postulated, be-
cause only Hupa, and to a partial extent its
neighbors to the south, retain kh- or the
like. Chil. -tche, tail; Hupa -khe. Chil.
tehan, stick; Hupa khin. (The word mean-
ing stick is also used meaning tree in all
these languages, with which agrees the use
of English stick meaning both stick and
tree in English local vernacular and in Chi-
nook jargon.)

| kx-

Some ancient affricative such as *kx- may
lie behind such appearance as in Chil.
tshan, excrement; Shastac. sa’, Hupa
tchv¥ayn. Chil. -tsha, -tshe, to cry; Hupa
-tchwa, -tchve. Chil. tshaz, firewood; Hupa
tch*ite.

FRONTALS
f
Chil. taé, driftwood.
i

Chil. t’es, charcoal, to becharcoal; Coq.
t’ec, black paint; to mark with black paint;
Hupa t’ex”, charcoal. to becharcoal.

th-
Chil. thuu, water; Ump. thuu.

FRONTAL LATERALS
4
Chil. h, dog; Kwal. ten; Hupa hin; Tlingit
khét, dog.
l
Chil. -la, hand.

il
Chil. tlat, rivergrass; Hupa lah, sea-let-
tuce (with tl- and 1-).
te’
Chil. t?’ul, string; Coq. ditto.

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

209

tth-
Chil. ttho, salve.

FRONTAL SIBILANTS

ts’

Chil. ts’ii, canoe; Kato ditto.

tz-

Chil. tzah, gum; -tzeh, -tze, to stick with
gum; Hupa tjeh, gum. Chil. tzu, heart;
Coq. se’; Wai. tjii. Chil. tzin, day; Wai.
tjin. Haida sin, day. For appearance in
some of the languages as a complete s, com-
pare e.g. Greek méssos, mésos, adj., middle,
for *médhyos.

FRONTAL LISPINGS
Chil. -6e, mouth.

t0’-
Chil. t@’an, bone; Shastac. ditto.

tOh-

Chil. téhe, stone; Shastac. 6ee; Hupa
tshe. Tlingit thé, stone. Chil. -téi, head;
Kato si’. Tlingit ca, head.

N-
Chil. -nai, -nai’, to drink; Hupa -naan,
-naa’n.
LABIALS

De
Chil. pan, roof; Coq. ma’n, house.
Mm-

The Chilcotins think of the Sekany tribe,
which lives northeast of them, as substitut-
ing m- for p-, and do not know that their
far southern linguistic cogeners do the same.
The alternation p with m is widespread in
American languages.

SYLLABOFINAL CONSONANTS

The Chilcotin languages have in general
about a dozen consonants that can be
syllabofinal. Only Hupa and Wailaki in-
dulge in clicked affricatives of this position,
e.g., Hupa and Wai. -t’ats’, to cut, inte-
gral. Hupa also shows an affricative at
the end of several forms where other lan-
guages would suggest a fricative, e.g. Hupa
teh*ite, firewood (the common dimunitive
in Hupa is in -tc, compare man-tc, hut,
literally houselet).

210

Syllable-closing -’ is in part original. It is
sometimes the mark of the possessional
form of the noun, of the perfective form of
the verb base. It is also sometimes a reduc-
tion of older -k or -t; for instance, Navajo
ka’nijii, white spruce, is for *kat-nijii.

-h

Syllable-closing -h is in part original. It is
also largely a reduction of syllable-closing
-x, as can be proved where it alternates with
-r. Sometimes -h is entirely leveled out, as
in Chil. -tcho, large. Sometimes -h stands
for a former -k, -t, or the like.

-hé .

Not having listed the several syllable
closures in -’ plus a buccal consonant, -hé
should not be separately listed, but its ap-
pearance is curious. Chilcotin has merely
yad, snow; xa@, xad, to snow; yet Kwal.
yahé, snow, Coq. yahs, Kato yahs.

-k

Shastac. ’ak, cloud; Hupa ’ah, Wai. ’ah,
show nicely -k having been preserved and
having become -h.

-t

Chil. tat, smoke; Shastac. ditto; Mat.
th. Chil. -khoh, river; Kato khot, creek.
The hardening of the preceding syllable re-
sults in a different history for this -t: Chil.
-pat, belly; Hupa -mit’, Mat. -pa’l.

-S, -2

Chil. pas, bank; Coq. maé. Chil. xaz, pus;

Coq. xa@. Chil. syllable-closing -s has in the

languages down the coast very different
appearances from Chil. syllabo-initial s-.
-n
In syllables originally closing with -n,
four different grades of non-reduction and
reduction can be easily distinguished in the
languages: (1) complete -n; (2) appearance
of -n as -n; (3) appearance of -n as nasaliz-
ing of the vowel which formerly preceded
it; (4) complete disappearance of nasaliza-
tion. Sometimes two of these grades appear
as distinguishing features in the forms of a
verb base.
-m
-m appears as a syllable-closer in a few

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

Chilcotin forms, but has gone over into the
more limber -n and its developments in the
other languages.

DISSYLLABIC ALTERNATION

A curious alternation between two-sylla-
ble and one-syllable forms, accomplished
factually by thrusting -r- into the middle of
the one-syllable form, appears in:

Shastac. daraé, black bear (compare per-
haps with the last syllable Chil. caé, griz-
tly); Chil. sas. =:

Chil. t?aras, snake; Kwal. ti’as-khan’e,
eel, literally river snake. Hupa tux’, snake;
tux¥-xan, eel, show Hupa }- for t!- (com-
pare for instance Hupa I- for tl- in the
Hupa word for sea-lettuce; pre-Hupa for
snake should be *tl’ix”).

Mat. k’arax, alder; Chil. k’as, Hupa
eUoey

DECLUSIVIZING, DEASPIRATING, DEALIFIZ-
ING, DEBUCCALIZING, ALIFIZING

Certain consonants in Athapascan lan-
guages, including Tlingit and Haida, have
been encountered that just about run the
gamut of homopositional type, and even
that straddle articulational position, re-
minding one of Italian basso, low, Spanish
bajo. The five processes mentioned as the
caption of this section, all of them except
the last mentioned accomplishing an easing,
are encountered, and can be listed and ex-
emplified here.

Perhaps the commonest of these proc-
esses is declusivizing, for instance, kh- in its
emphatic or overaspirated form is kx- and
is leveled solely to this appearance in some
of the languages, just as Siouan kh- be-
comes solely kx- in Teton Sioux, and indeed
in conformity for instance with the reduc-
tion of t@h- to 6-. I have even heard Navajo
-ko, when, if, in standard tempo talk re-
duced to -xo. Chil. -khe, foot; Coq. xe’;
Shas. xee.

Deaspirating is, in one way of looking at
it, the opposite of the above process, where-
by for instance an earlier kh- becomes k-.
Mat. ke’-, foot, for pre-Mattole *khe’-.

Dealifizing is well examplified by Chil..
-tluh, -tluk, to do by means of string; Chil.
-tVuh, -t?u’, to fasten with string.

Debuccalizing is again the opposite of the

Juny 15, 1943

just mentioned process. Chil. ’a-, something
or someone objective, verb prefix; Hupa
k’1-.

An example of alifizing is shown between
Chil. -k’aih, -k’an, to burn, and Chil.
khwan, fire.

SPECIAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SOUND

There are many special or irregular de-
velopments of sound in the Chilcotin lan-
guages. Some of these changes are differen-
tiations to avoid ambiguity. But through-
out the languages one notices that special
developments consist largely of easings of
consonants in prefix syllables or in other
much used forms. Thus Chil. ts’i-, someone,
verb prefix (never a noun prefix), appears in
Mattole as tji-, -’tji-, someone, verb prefix,
someone’s, noun prefix—with easing out of
the clicking, just as a Zunyi schoolchild will
say tz for ts’; Kwal. tante’e, 4; Cod:
tante’1; Hupa tink’; but Chil. tanke. These
changes are also suffered by bases and
have been listed as the processes of de-
clusivizing, etc., but prefixes and _ post-
fixes in the Chilcotin languages are espe-
cially prone to what may be termed special
development. One can compare, for in-
stance, the irregular verbs met with in many
languages, special development of sound
and form being caused by commonness of
occurrence in various settings.

LACK OF TONAL ACCENT

Inherent tone of syllables is a morpho-
logic and lexical as well as phonetic feature
and is a characteristic of the northern, east-
ern, and southeastern Athapascan lan-
guages, but it does not occur, except as rare
vestiges or as the cause of reflexes, in any
of the Chilcotin languages. In coming from
the inherent-tone Beaver, Chippewyan and
Sarcee languages, which lie to the east of the
Chilcotin languages, one is struck at once
that the Chilcotin languages are not tonal,
so much so that in these a noun may be dis-
tinguished from a phonetically equal verb
form by signalizing the syllable or sylla-
bles of the noun by raising of tone. This
lack of tonality is another common feature
that makes for the unitizing of the Chilcotin
languages.

In all the Chilcotin languages noun and

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

211

verb form identical with noun can be dis-
tinguished by raising and loudening of voice
for the nominally used form.

GRAMMATICAL AND VOCABULARIAL
COMPARISON

The Chilcotin languages are character-
ized by large preservation of the possessive
form of the noun; certain same nouns
throughout the languages require someone’s
to be prefixed for not personally possessed
form or when in certain meaning (Chil.
-tche, tail; but tche, stream mouth); the
same prioritive is common to a number of
the languages; lack of addressative; the
same postpositions with appositive personic
plus postposition readier than noun plus
postposition; the same personic plurals of
the pronoun (we, ye); k’i- (and from this
’1-, ’a-), someone or something objective,
verb prefix (not *’a-); the same demonstra-
tives (Chil. -ti-, this; Chil. -yu-, that); verb
base vriddhied by ablaut, orinasal umlaut,
vowel lengthening, postfixation of syllable-
closing consonants, as a maximum to five
different forms and with k- to kw-, k’- to
k’w- and kh- to khw- as a maximum of syl-
labo-initial consonant change; verb bases
having the vowel consist of 1 prone to have
one or few forms; nonintegral and integral
action, nearer perfect and remoter perfect,
immediative and future sometimes distin-
guishable by verb base change alone; cer-
tain verb prefixes and postfixes prescribe
verb base forms; a separate class of verb
postfixes outside of and after the verb base
constantly and vitally in use even largely
for tense distinguishment; verb base classi-
fication of entities such as earth, fire and
water as well as according to shape or
plurality; formation of passive from inte-
gral base; noun incorporation not confined to
special forms but pretty largely practicable,
in the adverbial belt; customary a second-
ary formation; nouns, pronouns, and par-
ticles, painters appositive to verb elements
of vagueness; yi- (related to the remoter de-
monstrative) largely as adverb prop and as
partial originator of the relatival; cardinal
direction terms largely interlaced with
stream and slope terms.

In addition to grammatical features suz
generis these languages have the same pe-

212

eculiar vocabulary, unitary inheritance of
morphoms and etyma as well as their treat-
ment; we point, for instance, to the numeral
tanke, 4, which runs down the coast from
British Columbia to Laytonville, to peculiar
plant names, animal names, etc.

WIDER COMPARISON

A sensing of phonetics, morphology, and
lexicality still wider than that gained from
Athapascan, Tlingit, and Haida will be ob-
tained by a comparison with genetically re-
lated stocks. A perspective even wider than
this will be obtained by following out the
suggestions given by the semantics of stocks
whose genetic relation with Athapascan,
Tlingit, and Haida can never perhaps be
proved. For instance, the Algonkin stock,
and again the Yuman stock, have bundles
of vocables including the meanings to be
white and to dawn. In Athapascan there oc-
curs a verb to be white represented in very
original form by Wai. -kai, to be white, and
a verb to be daylight, to dawn, appearing
for instance as Chil. khaih, khai, to be day-
light, to dawn. Unconnectable, we say at
present, yet surely connected.

INTERLINKING TRADITIONS

Hardest to get of all, and at the same time °

most satisfactory, were actually remem-
bered traditions corroborating the linguistic
evidence, which, although in part shading
off into the mythical, are clearly indicative
that there has been a southern spread of
language-bearing ancestors, accomplished
in war, opportunism, and peace, resulting in
linguistic supplanting in large just-inland
and coastal regions, and that the spread has
been piecemeal, consisting of the throwing
off of more southerly linguistic neighbors
by more northerly adjacent ones. These ty-
ing traditions are 10 in number.

(1) Although in the Nicola Valley I ob-
tained volunteered information that the
Stuwix-mux language is Chilcotin, a more
detailed account of this, presenting infor-
mation transmitted to Dawson by MacKay,
formerly Indian agent at Kamloops, British
Columbia, is to be found in Dawson,
“Notes on the Shuswap People of British
Columbia” (Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

Canada 9 (sect. 2): 3-44. 1892). The first
paragraph quoted presents information ob-
tained by Dawson from MacKay, the sec-
ond tells of Dawson’s visit to an Indian in
the Nicola Valley:

A long time before the white man first came
to the country, a company of warriors accom-
panied by their women from the neighborhood
of the Chilcotin River made their appearance in
the Bonaparte valley. ... This happened during
the salmon fishing season... . At that time it was
customary for the Shuswaps who lived on the
banks of the Thompson between Kamloops and
the mouth of the Bonaparte valley to take their
winter stock of salmon from the Fraser River at
the western base of Pavilion Mountain. ... The
strangers from Chilcotin .. . continued their ad-
vance southward down the Bonaparte and
Thompson valleys till they reached a position
opposite the mouth of the Nicola River. At this
place they were discovered by some scouts... .
The intruders... took- advantage of the night
to cross the Thompson and proceeded to ascend
the Nicola valley. ... The strangers were driven
into the Similkameen valley, where they took a
firm stand....

An Indian named Joyaska, who lives in the
Nicola valley, below the lake, and who is probably
sixty years old, informed me [Dawson]... that
he, with seven other men and some women and
children belonging to them, were now the only
remaining true natives of the Nicola region... .
I asked him if the old language was like that of the
Tsilkotin ... to the north, and he said it was the
same.

One may discredit this story, which is
given even in more detail that I have
quoted above, but I got enough information
in the field to convince me that it has some
basis of fact in the remote past.

(2) The Kwalhioqua tradition that they
spoke the language of the land-otter and
migrated far from the east, apparently con-
tains dim handed-down memory blended
with a standardized linguistic metaphor. I
have recorded elsewhere Indian language
metaphors that a foreign people talks the
language of ducks, or again of blackbirds.

(3) The Kwalhioquas also have a tradi-
tion concerning the Tlatskanai. They tell
that the Tlatskanai are an offshoot of their
own people. Some Kwalhioqua youths, bor-
rowing and misuing a firedrill, started a
great forest fire and, when this subsided,
followed the tracks of an elk easily discerni-
ble in the ashes south through alien terri-

Juny 15, 1943

tory to the nearby Columbia River. On
crossing this river they found good elk
hunting in the region of the Claskanie River
on the south side and sent a messenger back
with a lot of dried elk meat. The messenger
succeeded in persuading many of the Kwal-
hioqua to migrate to the Claskanie Valley,
which they did, thus initiating the Tlats-
kanai tribe.

(4) A third Kwalhioqua tradition is that
the Umpquas are, like the Tlatskanais, a
body of Kwalhioqua who migrated south.
This tradition is of the utmost importance
since the Umpquas belong to the southern-
most group of Chilcotins.

(5) The Tututunne, whose great village
was on the north bank of lowest Rogue
River at what was later called Bagnell’s
Ferry, have a tradition that they migrated
to that site.

(6) The Mikonotunne, whose village was
on the north bank of Rogue River about
seven miles above that of the Tututunne,
have a tradition that they migrated upriver.

(7) There was a place somewhere up the
Rogue River above Shastacosta village
called Maanesta. At Shastacosta village
two chiefs quarreled. One of these chiefs
wandered upriver and established Maanesta
in a narrow place of the river full of hazel-
brush. People climbing the mountain sides
at Maanesta would see the smoke of Shas-
tacosta village far downriver toward the
coast and would say to their accompanying
youngsters, ‘Those are our people, we came
from there.”

(8) There is a tradition among the Smith
River Indians telling that the Hupas are
Smith Rivers in origin, though the Hupas
are now separated from the latter by the
alien-speaking tribe of the lower Klamath
River, and the differences between Smith

HARRINGTON: PACIFIC COAST ATHAPASCAN

213

River and Hupa must have required long
separation to attain. It is said that ten boys
and ten girls left Burnt Ranch village on
Smith River, that the trail magically opened
up before them so that they walked with-
out crossing water to Hoopa Valley and
became the Hupa Indians. The Hupa
Indians in their language today sometimes
refer to the Smith River Indians as little
Hupas, which implies recognition of rela-
tionship.

(9) A somewhat similar Smith River In-
dian tradition states that the Whilkuts of
Blue Lake, speaking a language closely re-
lated to Hupa, originally lived at South
Bend on the Smith River, and that ages ago
they migrated south, fighting off enemies as
they went, until they finally reached Blue
Lake.

(10) The Hupas have the tradition that
the Saya, also called Nongatl (saya in the
Chinook jargon means far off), who used to
adjoin the Whilkut in the hills east of Hum-
boldt Bay, are Hupas who moved south
long ago. As proof of this, the information
was volunteered that a Hupa can under-
stant the Saya language after hearing it for
a while.

CONVERSION OF LINGUISTIC CHANGE
INTO CHRONOLOGY

One may ask, after all the above, the
practical question: How long have the Chil-
cotin languages been developing asunder?
To this question no answer can probably
ever be given. Linguistic change has had
for various features various and varying
rates, and no amount of study will convert
as a whole the duration of the linguistic
change sundering these languages to time
reckoning, even to the extent of a good
guess.

214

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

ENTOMOLOGY.—New species of flies of the genera Baccha and Rhinoprosopa

(Syrphidae).?
ALAN STONE.)

In recent studies of syrphid flies, some
new species of Baccha and Rhinoprosopa
from the neotropical regions were dis-
covered and are described in this paper. The
types, except where designated, are in the
collection of Dr. C. L. Fluke, of the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, whom I wish to thank
for the loan of this material. Paratypes,
where available, are in the author’s col-
lection.

Baccha minima, n. sp.

Abdomen with a pair of widely separated
yellow rectangles in the basal corners of the
fourth segment. Third segment with a pair of
basal vittae on each side. Related to sativa
Curran.

Male.—Length 8 mm. Head: face and front
yellow, the latter with a black dot on lunula.
Pile sparse, black. Antennae orange, third joint
missing. Thorax: mesonotum brassy black with
a pair of wide, yellowish-gray vittae running
nearly to the scutellum. Humeri and lateral
margins widely yellow; a medial spot adjacent
to the humeri, yellow. Pleura yellow, brownish
on the metapleura and hypopleura. Scutellum
yellow with a few black hairs and one or two
black fringe hairs. Abdomen: slender, shining
black; the sides of first segment are yellow, the
remainder brown. Third segment with a pair
of narrowly separated yellow vittae in the
middle of each side. Fourth segment with a
large, rectangular yellow spot on the lateral
margins and base of the segment, the two spots
not widely separated. Fifth segment shining
black. Legs: yellow, the hind femora with a
brown subapical annulus, their tibiae with the
middle yellow and proximal to it a dark brown
annulus and the distal third brown. Hind basi-
tarsi yellowish brown, the apical joints dark
brown. Wings: pale brown, the stigmal cell
quite dark; costal cell clear; alulae absent.

Holotype, male, Nova Teutonia, Brazil, Fritz
Plaumann. (Fluke collection.)

Baccha delicatissima, n. sp.

Characterized by the dark aeneous-brown

1 Received March 18, 1943.

F. M. Hutt, University of Mississippi. (Communicated by

mesonotum and scutellum. Hind femora and
tibiae brown, yellow centrally. Related to
macer Curran.

Male.—Length 7.5 mm. Head: face and front
yellow, the former with a black spot on lunula
and black pile, facial pile yellow. Antennae
orange, blackish above. Thorax: mesonotum
brassy brown, the margins obscurely yellow
without apparent vittae. Scutellum concolorous
with four or five long black hairs, no fringe or
collar. Halteres black, squamae pale. Pleura
wholly yellowish. Abdomen slender, brownish
black; second segment light brown on the basal
corners, with small, oblique, widely separated,
light-brown spots just past the middle. Third
segment with a similar oblique middle spot on
each side. Fourth segment with a wide, sepa-
rated vittate spot beginning some distance
from base and near the middle of the segment
proceeding diagonally to the margin. Fifth
segment with a pair of oval vittate spots. Legs:
yellowish, the middle femora except at base, all
of hind femora and tibiae pale brown. Femora
with subapical bands and tibiae dark brown
basally and apically. Wings: pale brown; stig-
mal cell dark, costa lighter; alulae absent.

Female.—Similar to the male, front with a
slender brown stripe; spots of fourth segment
form well-marked, short, inverted V’s.

Holotype male and allotype female, Nova
Teutonia, Brazil, Fritz Plaumann. (Fluke col-
lection.)

Baccha zilla, n. sp.

Related to virgilio Hull. The front is wholly
pale, the third and fourth segments of the abdo-
men with two vittae on each side, each pair
basally confluent. Scutellum and pleura, except
the metapleura, pale yellow.

Female.—Length 8 mm. Head: face and front
pale yellow, the latter with sparse black hairs,
the vertex as far as the first ocellus blackish;
lunula with a black dot, antennae orange, the
third joint missing. Thorax: greenish shining
black, with a pair of pale gray-brown, anteriorly
wide vittae reaching over the anterior half.
Pleura except the metapleura, the humeri, the
wide lateral margins and scutellum, ali pale
yellow. The scutellum has five or six pale hairs

JuLy 15, 1948

on the ventral fringe and a very few hairs on
disc. Abdomen: elongate; slender; about the
same length as wings; the first segment is yel-
low on the sides, with yellow pile; second seg-
ment with a long, narrow, medial black vitta,
the apical fifth black, the sides yellowish; third
segment with a long, slender pair of yellow vit-
tae reaching to the base and basally fused on
each side of the segment. They cover nearly
three-fourths the length of the segment. Fourth
segment similar, the vittate spots shorter. Fifth
segment with a pair of short, reddish vittae.
Legs: yellow, the hind femora brownish sub-
apically, their tibiae pale brown, yellow in the
middle, their tarsi dark brown. Wings: pale
brown; stigma dark; alulae absent.

Holotype—Female, Nova Teutonia, Brazil,
Fritz Plaumann, and a paratype from Nova
Teutonia and one also Puyo, Ecuador, Decem-
ber 1938, F. M. and H. H. Brown. (Fluke col-
lection.)

Baccha nerissa, n. sp.

Related to columbiana Curran. The pleura
are steel-blue. Hind femora and tibiae black.
Third to fifth abdominal segments trivittate.

Female.—Length 11 mm. Head: face yellow
laterally, its middle and the cheeks blue-black
and white-pollinose; the front is black, black-
pilose, narrowly yellow on the sides and linearly
white-pubescent. Antennae dark brown, the
third joint orange below, blackish brown above,
and rather elongate. Thorax: mesonotum dull
black, with a faint bronze cast and a pair of
wide, narrow, gray vittae reaching almost to
scutellum. Pleura steel-blackish; scutellum
dark brown, with sparse black pile and long,
mixed, ventral fringe. Abdomen: petiolate, the
first segment metallic black and extending onto
base of second. Second segment orange laterally
and brown apically with opaque central tri-
angles; third and fourth segments reddish
brown, with a medial black vittae and a lateral
black triangle, all apically confluent, the post-
margins brown. Fifth segment trivittate; sixth
trapezoidal, basally flattened and black, later-
ally compressed apically. Legs: first four
brown, dark at base of femora, pale yellow at
base of tibiae; hind femora and tibiae black,
tibial base narrowly yellow. Hind basi tarsi
basally black; remainder of tarsi pale. Wings:
pale brown, dark brown on anterior border,
almost as far as end of stigmal cell. Alulae wide.

HULL: NEW SYRPHID FLIES

215

Holotype female, Pinas, Ecuador, 1,200
meters, July 21, 1941, D. B. Laddey. (Fluke
collection.)

Baccha nigrocilia, n. sp.

All the legs jet black, with similar pile, longer
on the hind pair, the hind tarsi in part yellow.
Wings brown on basal half, anterior tarsi di-
lated. Related to hirta Shannon.

Female.—Length 9 mm. Head: face and front
steel-blue, the former narrow yellow on the
sides, the latter protuberant anteriorly, widely
shining black in the middle, with black pile;
lunula and antennae black. Thorax: mesono-
tum and scutellum shining black, with black
pile and ventral fringe, the notapleura bluish,
the humeri sepia, the pleura steel-blue with
vertical silver pubescence and silver pile and
black-pilose on posterior half. Squamae and
fringe black. Abdomen: strongly petiolate;
first segment shining black and steel-blue pos:
teriorly; second segment steel-blue on the basal
third and side margins, with in the middle a
pair of oblique black spots meeting above.
Third segment reddish in the anterior corners,
with large, central, opaque black triangle,
which is postmedially indented; the posterior
and anterior margins are shining. Fourth seg-
ment steel-blue, with, on each side, a large,
opaque triangle posteromedially connected to a
median black vittae that does not reach the
base. Fifth segment with three black vittae on
steel-blue ground. Sixth segment flattened,
trapezoidal. Legs: jet black and pilose, the pile
quite long on the hind pair; apex of hind basi
tarsi and next two segments whitish. Anterior
tarsi dilated, wings brown on basal half. Alulae
very large, stigmal cell pale.

Holotype female, Sao Paulo, Brazil, February
18-26, 1940, Ilha Seca; one paratype female.
(Fluke collection.)

Baccha nigrocilia inclusa, n. var.

In this variety, from Colombia, the vittae
are slender and isolated and contained within
the triangles of opaque black upon the abdomi-
nal segments.

Baccha nigrocilia hirtipes, n. var.

In this variety, from Colombia, there are
large yellow-brown triangles in the lateral
corners of the second to fifth segments; the vit-
tate spots are also yellow.

216

Rhinoprosopa lucifer, n. sp.

Related to aenea Hull but the pleura are
chiefly black, the facial stripe is wider. Hind
tibiae black. 7

Male.—Length 11 mm. Head: the cheeks
and sides of face are widely pale yellow;
middle of face widely jet black. The sides of
the front are orange, broadly opaque black
down the middle, expanding to reach the
sides of the shining black lunula. Face pro-
duced considerably beyond the antennal
apex, with a low tubercle below the anten-
nae. Antennae reddish brown, the third
joint blackish except at the ventral base;
arista black. Pile of front black and long
and confined to the top and sides. Vertex
black with black pile. Thorax: mesonotum
brassy brownish or black, the anterior half
brownish-gray pollinose, without definite
vittae and with long yellow pile. Humeri,
the whole of notapleura, postcalli, and a
sharp wide basal margin on the scutellum
yellow. Remainder of scutellum dark brown,
lighter on the margin, its pile long, sparse,
and black, with longer marginal bristles and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

no fringe. Only the posterior half of the
mesopleura is yellow. Abdomen rather
slender, especially at the end of second seg-
ment, black with yellow markings as fol-
lows: all but the posterior margin of the
second segment in the middle yellow. Second
segment with a pair of long, oblique, an-
teriorly approximated, bright, central, yel-
low stripes upon the sides of the segment,
each stripe margined anteriorly with opaque
black and posteriorly with an opaque tri-
angle. Third segment with similar pattern,
the stripes almost confluent anteriorly.
Fourth segment with larger, similar stripes
which are fused throughout most of their
length in the middle. Fifth segment with
oblique, transverse, short fascia fused me-
dially. Legs: yellow, the hind femora dark
brown on more than the apical half, their
tibiae and tarsi very dark brown. Wings:
wholly deep brown with slender alulae,
equally developed throughout.

Hobotype male, Pinas Ecuador, 1,600
meters, July 25, 1941, D. B. Laddey. Two
paratype males, same data. (Fluke collec-
tion.)

ZOOLOGY .—A folliculinid associated with a hermit crab. | E. A. ANDREWS, Johns
Hopkins University, and E. G. REINHARD, Catholic University of America.

The folliculinids are a small group of
ciliated Protozoa living in colored, chitinoid
tests, scarcely visible to the naked eye and
firmly attached to various objects in all the
oceans of the world. When the animals leave
these tests to make others, the old ones
persist and are recognizable as representing
species and genera.

Hermit crabs drag about deserted snail
shells, within which their soft spirally grown
hind bodies are protected. That certain
folliculinids live attached to the soft bodies
of hermit crabs, within the shells of snails,
was observed in 1888 by Giard, in France.
He saw them as little black spots on the
hind body, near the limbs or near the end of
the hermit crab Pagurus bernhardus, then
called Hupagurus bernhardus. These specks
proved to be groups of folliculinids, which
he thought to be well placed to receive
currents of water along the hind body. The

1 Received March 26, 1943.

shape of each test was so peculiar, being
pinched in with an upper and lower part,
something like a double gourd or gourd-
shaped piece of pottery, that he made them
representatives of a new genus, Pebrilla.

No other mention of this association was
made for nearly 50 years, and then, in 1936,
Fauré-Fremiet on the coast of France found
these same folliculinids associated with the
same hermit crab, but also with another,
Clibanarius misanthropus. He found them
standing solitary or in groups of four to
seven on the hind body of the crab only, and
never upon the inside surface of the snail
shell.

Though the pinched-in shape of Pebrilla
suggests some outside force, Fremiet ob-
served the animal secreting its test in two
efforts, first the posterior part and then,
with change of shape and of secretion zone,
the anterior part, entirely from within and
with no external compulsion. This folliculi-
nid, Pebrilla paguri Giard, is known only as

Juuty 15, 1948

occurring upon the above two sorts of her-
mit crabs and as observed by the above two
naturalists.

In studying the hermit crab Pagurus
pubescens Kroyer, living in the shells of the
snails Lattorina litorea, Thais lapillus, Buc-
cinum undatum, and some others and col-
lected from shallow water in Frenchman’s
Bay, coast of Maine, between Mount
Desert Island and the mainland, one of the
authors in 1939, 1940, and 1941 observed
blackish spots, which proved to be tests of
some folliculinid, scattered over the hind
bodies of these crabs. After preliminary
study of these objects, involving the prepa-
ration of whole mounts and some serial
sections of crab abdomens, he turned over
this material together with preserved crabs
fixed in Gilson’s fluid to the senior author
for detailed investigation.

This association of folliculinid and hermit
crab proves not to be the same as observed
in France. The folliculinid is a different
species and genus, and the hermit is also a
different species from either of those men-
tioned in France. There are no records of
folliculinids on other sorts of hermit crabs,
but on one out of a dozen specimens of
Pagurus longicarpus from Woods Hole,
Mass., three or four tests of a folliculinid
were found near together on the right side
of the antepenultimate segment. These
seemed to be Lagotia viridis, which is one
of several folliculinids that. occur in that
region. It is common on algae and hydroids,
and the few found on the hermit crab may
have been stray experimenters.

Examination of a dozen Pagurus polli-
carts, also from Woods Hole, failed to reveal
any folliculinids, and P. acadianus from
Maine seems likewise free of these Protozoa.
However, on five out of six Pagurus hem-
phillt received for examination from the
U. 8S. National Museum and dredged in
Cuylers Harbor, San Miguel Island, Calif.,
in July 1939, there were folliculinids much
resembling those on Pagurus pubescens from
Maine, both in general appearance and in
distribution on the abdomen, but they
prove to be Lagotia simplex Dons as under-
stood by Fauré-Fremiet in 1936. It is not
every specimen of Pagurus pubescens from

ANDREWS AND REINHARD: A NEW FOLLICULINID

217

Maine that bears folliculinids. Fifty-five
adult females, not hosts of Peltogaster,
showed folliculinids on 39 and none on the
rest. Some of the latter were no doubt re-
cently molted crabs and accordingly could
not be expected to have attached com-
mensals. The little tests (Fig. 1) stand
fixed only to the dorsum and the sides of the
hind body and are strikingly more numerous
toward the posterior end.

Thus, dividing the abdomen into. swollen
anterior segments and the terminal part
(the latter consisting of the last segment with
uropods and telson), we found that in the
above 39 there were 89 folliculinids on the
swollen region and 237 on the terminal re-
gion.

This crowding toward the hind end, which
lies far within the spiral of the snail shell, is
just the reverse of the distribution of the
little bivalves, juvenile Mytilus edulis, that
were found abundantly attached by byssus
threads to the rough anterior free parts of
the crab, but very seldom on the hind body.

Why the folliculinids find the terminal
region of the crab’s body more suitable for
attachment than any other arouses specula-
tion. The answer, we believe, may be found
in the fact that the apices of the shells in-
habited by hermit crabs are generally
choked with organic refuse, including fecal
material, which must be a rich culture
medium for various microorganisms. Since
this is pocketed in a relatively stagnant
environment, the folliculinids on the termi-
nal portion of the crab’s abdomen seem
particularly well located to have an abun-
dance of food always at hand.

These folliculinid tests are scattered here
and there, often as solitary and quite often
as grouped individuals (Fig. 1). The groups
are made up of 2, 3, and up to 17 individuals
(Fig. 2) and suggest that the swimmers that
settle and build have some methods of re-
action to one another and are to some ex-
tent social. Like many species of folliculi-
nids, these may group themselves in de-
pressed areas of the surface, and often we
find them in aggregates along the grooves
bounding the last segment, where the
largest groups were seen (Fig. 2). Here the
swimmers must have settled about the same

218 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7

Fig. 1.—Dorsal view of end of abdomen of Pagurus pubescens showing distribution of about 30
folliculinid tests. Fig. 2.—Largest group of 17 folliculinids extending in groove outlining telson, all
tests connected by basal colletoderm, some built on top of others with outlines distorted from crowding.
Fig. 3.—Folliculinid with nine Pottsia infusorium parasites projecting from rear portion, and few dia-
toms in front part. Fig. 4.—Top view of folliculinid test surrounded with halo of cement. Fig. 5.—
Profile view of same specimen as Fig. 4.

Kach side line represents 100u except in Fig. 1, where it represents 1 mm. :

JuLy 15, 1943 ANDREWS AND REINHARD: A NEW FOLLICULINID 219

Fig. 6.—Dorsal view of folliculinid test distorted by pressure against setae of surface of last pleopod
of Pagurus pubescens. Contents of test reduced to scattered nuclei, chiefly. Outline suggests that of
Lagotia. Fig. 7.—Partly preserved folliculinid with wide base of attachment to test. The wide stalk
abnormally cleared of granules except at the attaching surface. Eight nucleiin view. Fig. 8.—Ventral
view of folliculinid fixed in Gilson’s liquid, showing unequal peristomial lobes, pharynx, and part of
gullet; with 11 unequal nuclear lobes and large fecal vacuole approaching small remnant already dis-
charged. Fig. 9.—Two folliculinids fixed in Gilson’s liquid in partly destroyed test, each with one
macronucleus and several micronuclei. They are the separated anterior and posterior halves of one that
divided crosswise; the one on the right retains its contact with the test and is developing unequal
lobes; the one on the left was the anterior half and is free from the test; its terminal membranella crown
is that of a free-swimmer, but there is a small protoplasmic protrusion near it. Fig. 10.—Ventral
view of folliculinid test containing two results of recent fission; the anterior part to the left has ter-
minal crown of a swimmer and 10-lobed nucleus; the posterior part, to the right, retains basal attach-
ment, has a 9-lobed nucleus and two unequal peristomial lobes, with the nascent pharynx still at the
posterior third of the body.

Each side line represents 100u. All figures (1-10) are of Platyfolliculina paguri, n. sp.

220

time and crowded as close as possible to
others, and some even settled on top of
- those already in place. Such overlying in-
dividuals show irregular outlines, since the
sides of their tests were hampered by con-
tact with the necks of the tests they sat
upon. It will be noted that the colony has a
dense center where they parked so closely
as to leave no vacant spaces, just as is the
habit of Metafolliculina andrews.

These tests show no common orientation;
even in closely crowded groups the mem-
bers that stand side by side have axes in
various directions. Each test is a very flat
simple flask with short neck, and it is sur-
rounded by a halo of cement that fastens
it to the surface of the crab (Figs. 4, 5).
When two or more settle near together the
cement of all binds them together by a flat
membrane called colletoderm by Wright in
1859. Peeling this from the crab removes a
group as one mass.

It is notable that many of these tests are
empty, so that good specimens of the ani-
mal are not readily found. One group of ten
had eight empty. To be sure, it is known
that folliculinids may swim away and leave
empty tests, but here we find evidences of
death of the animal, such as remnants of
protoplasm with groups of nuclei (Fig. 6).
That some of the many empty tests may be
the results of attacks by parasites is sug-
gested by facts to be presented later on in
this paper.

Proceeding now to a detailed description
of these folliculinids associated with Pagurus
pubescens, we consider first the test and then
the animal, not observed in life.

By reflected light the tests are soot-black,
but by transmitted light pale green. Each
is a flat, wide sac with insignificant neck
that lacks a special collar at its mouth. The
floor of the sac is quite flat and the roof but
slightly arched. The sac adheres by a thin
layer of cement under its floor and extend-
ing 20—50y as a halo around the floor of the
sac. The underlying cement may rise up
posteriorly to the top of the sac roof. The
short simple neck has a thin wall, while the
sac seems to have a thick wall, but this is
the optical effect of the curvature of the
sides, which in a horizontal distance of 5-6u

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

descend 25-30y, the top and bottom views
suggesting outer and inner boundaries of —
the wall. That is, where the greatest diame-
ter of the sac is 125u the diameter of the
floor is 115u—the overhanging sides simu-

lating a thick wall.

As the sac is so flat, top and bottom views
are readily seen but profiles scarcely ever. -
In bottom views the sharp line of junction
of side and floor is strixing. Actual longi-
tudinal sections of the test give the appear-
ance of a test tube with blunt bottom and
upturned mouth end. The material of the
test looks homogeneous except that in the
cement and sometimes in the walls of the
neck there are minute particles, some of
which are the original subpellicular granules
(protrichocysts of Klein) discharged and
more or less swollen and fused to make all
the test and cement.

The flimsy necks show various lengths
and angles of rise from the floor of the sac,
but as side views are rarely seen the meas-
urements of neck length are not exact.
Views down the neck sometimes suggest
valves, but none was demonstrated. Rarely
is the thin mouth edge thickened slightly
as a Ou rim.

The range in size in 25 measured tests is
as follows:

Potellencth es. ee 188-238
Saclengthss. 46 47 eee 138-188
Neck length.c scien seer 35-75
Dac. widths ss ohne See negra 90-150
Neck wwidith oie 5 ar es 38-60
Mouthiwidthia see eee 30-63

As estimated by focusing, the depth of the
sac is often but 25yu and rarely 50u, while in
paraffin sections it was measured as 25, 28,
35, and 38n.

The tests are not so strictly symmetrical
as in many other folliculinids, and there are
some monstrosities. One had a neck from
a sac of 125u length extended to a total
length of 113u. This resulted from the fact
that its first portion of 50u length was fol-
lowed by a secondary extension of 63. off
at a large angle.

Straight. extensions of necks are common
in some folliculinids. The sides of the sac are
not infrequently indented, and usually this
has arisen from resistance of.setae on the

Juny 15, 1943

shell of the hermit crab, or from necks of
other tests, as in Fig. 2. When, as in Fig.
6, the swimmer settled between setae too
near together its test was distorted on op-
posite sides so as to somewhat suggest the
pinched-in form of Pebrilla paguri found on
hermit crabs in France.

Knowledge of the animal within the test
is hampered by effects of parasitism and
methods of fixation of the crabs. Though
one remnant had a length of 250u, most
were strongly contracted down into the
sac with the peristomial lobes but poorly
preserved. The left lobe was considerably
bulkier than the right. What was seen of the
pharynx was not deep and possessed few
spirals.

Nuclei appear clear in dead remnants and
as dark-stained spherules after borax-
carmine or haematoxylin. Generally 9, but
up to 13 in number, are present. Rarely
seen connected, they are of unequal mass,
5-15u in diameter. Each nuclear lobe is
closely surrounded by a layer of granules.
Accompanying these macronuclei were
sometimes darkly staining unequal spher-
ules about 1—2y in diameter and deemed to
be micronuclei. Longitudinal pigment bands
were counted as 30-35 in dorsal view. Food
vacuoles were seen and some diatoms within
the protoplasm, anteriorly; also fecal vacu-
oles. What is of import is that where the
animal had not been separated from the
sac it was attached posteriorly by a broad
base, 25—45u wide (Fig. 7).

Seeking a name for this folliculinid as-
sociating with Pagurus pubescens, we find
that its multiple nucleus places it in the
Eufolliculininae where its wide flat sac,
short neck, and broad base of attachment of
the animal bring it near to what Hadzi, in
1938, called Platyfolliculina sahrhageana.
Hadzi found in the Adriatic two unde-
scribed forms in the subfamily Semifollicu-
lininae with broad bases of attachment;
thinking this important he worked over the
illustrations given in 1917 by Sahrhage
when describing division in what he thought
Folliculina ampulla (a name applied to
many different species). Hadzi concluded
that Sahrhage’s illustrations should be
taken as representative of a new genus,

ANDREWS AND REINHARD: A NEW FOLLICULINID

221

Platyfolliculina, to be called P. sahrhageana.
He estimates the dimensions to be:

Total length of test......... 1387-237
Breadtheol Sac: 22 ee 91-109
Breadthvof neckties. os542 2 34-50

The extended animal was 243-250 by about
30 but when retracted 85-132 by 59-33un.
The macronuclei were generally six in
number and up to 17y in diameter; and the
micronuclei up to five in number.

Sahrhage’s species came from algae and
piles in Kiel Harbor, but ours on Pagurus
pubescens has much resemblance to it.
Moreover, in one of these crabs fixed in
Gilson’s liquid, two tests were found con-
taining stages soon after division, as de-
scribed by Sahrhage.

In the first (Fig. 9) two animals occur
side by side, each with one macro- and
several micronuclei. This is evidently a
stage immediately after the moniliform
nucleus condensed into a rod that divided
into anterior and posterior halves, as the
protoplasm pinched in ventrally to separate
an anterior from a posterior half. Of these
the posterior stands attached, while the
anterior has slipped down along the side of
the posterior half and stands beside it and
free.

In the later stage (Fig. 10) the macro-
nuclei have increased to the normal number
while the original anterior half still remains
alongside the posterior half preparatory to
swimming free; the posterior half, on the
right of the illustration, is perfecting its
unequal membranella-bearing lobes, though
as yet the opening of the infundibulum is
far back in the posterior third of the animal
and will need to be brought forward to
function. In general, as here, the ontogeny
of any folliculinid starts as a rodlike form,
I, then this splits deep to form almost a J,
and later elongates the stalk to fashion a —
Y-form the arms of which are of different
lengths in different species and in different
phases.

Provisionally, we assign this folliculinid
on Pagurus pubescens to the genus Platy-
folliculina, but as the nuclei are more nu-
merous, the necks longer, and the sacs wider
than in P. sahrhageana it seems to belong

222

to a new species here named Platyfolliculina
paguri.

These platyfolliculinids associated with
Pagurus pubescens live well protected in the
restricted, dark spaces of the snail shell, yet
as they multiply there it is evident that ade-
quate food is present for them and for other
ciliates also residing there, such as the large
branched colonies of vorticellids and up-
standing tube dwellers seen in 7y sections as
45u long Cothurnza.

When the animals are present in their
tests they frequently bear at the posterior
part (Fig. 3) several spheroidal protrusions,
4—30yu in diameter, each with a large nucleus
4—-10u wide and often also with a smaller
embryo cavity 2—5y wide, external to the
nucleus.

That these projecting cells are actually
parasites fastened to the folliculinid is cer-
tain when they are compared with the re-
sults of Chatton and Lwoff, who in 1927
described a new and remarkable suctorian
that lives as parasite upon two species of

folliculinids and two species of vorticellids. .

When mature these parasites project just as
in the folliculinids we find upon Pagurus
pubescens.

These authors, in 1924, found that Fol-
liculina ampulla was badly infested with
these parasites in the aquaria at Monaco,
while the rare F. elegans had none. Also
Folliculina ampulla brought from Samoa
and from Woods Hole, Mass., by F. A.
Potts, lecturer at Cambridge, showed these
parasites. These suctoria, named Potisia
infusorium, are peculiar in the group of
acinetans in that the embryo released from
the cavity of the adult in which it was
formed by budding has three bands of loco-
motor cilia as well as terminal sucking tubes
by which it anchors itself to the body of the
folliculinid and grows to maximum size
by drawing out liquid from the host. As
many as 22 were seen on one folliculinid,
and these authors think that greater num-
bers kill the host folliculinid, after which
they gradually perish within the host’s test.
This may account for the many emptied
tests seen on Pagurus pubescens.

Finding Potisia infusorium as parasite on

these folliculinid associates of the hermit,

Pagurus pubescens, thus adds Maine to

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 7

their previously recorded geographical dis-
tribution, Samoa, Monaco, and Woods
Hole, and also adds to the previously re-
corded hosts they attack, i.e., Folliculina
ampulla, F. elegans, Cothurnia ingenita, and
C. socialis, this folliculinid on Pagurus
pubescens. Moreover, this same parasite was
seen on a few Parafolliculina amphora and
Metafolliculina andrewsi in September, 1941;
on the west shore of the Chesapeake Bay,
north of Baltimore.

In passing, we note that Chatton and
Lwoff previously discovered a flagellated
organism, Sporomonas infusorium, living as
a parasite in Folliculina elegans, as well as
in Vorticella, in the aquaria at Banyuls and
in F’. ampulla from Woods Hole. In the fol-
liculinid this Sporomonas infusorium grows
to be a mass of 70 diameter before it
escapes from the folliculinid to sporulate
inside the test.

The folliculinid these authors call PF.
ampulla is a multinucleate form with long
spirally reinforced neck and may well be
what Hadzi later called Metafolliculina
andrews.

Whether Platyfolliculina paguri occurs
also in other habitats remains to be found
out. It is not the only folliculinid in this
habitat, for on one specimen of Pagurus
pubescens there were found two long,
slender folliculinids of some other kind. One
was fast to the right side of the fourth seg-
ment of the hind body, pointing downward,
and the other was well protected on the
chela closely surrounded by heavy conical
spines. These two seem to represent some
undescribed form.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CuHaTTon, Epwarp, and Lworr, A. Sur un
flagellé hypotrophique et palintomique para-
site des infusoires marins: Sporomonas in-
fusorilum n. gen. n. sp. Compt. Rend.
Soc. Biol. 91: 180-190. 1924.

Pottsia infusorium n. gen. n. sp.:
Acinétien parasite des folliculines et des
cothurnies. Bull. Inst. Océanogr. Monaco
489. 1927.

Dons, Cari. Neue und wenig bekannte Pro-.
tozoa. Norske Vid. Selsk. Skrift. 1927
(CORMIESIEE OVA

FavuRE-FREMIET, E. Division et morphogenése
chez Folliculina ampulla O. F. Miller.
Bull. Biol. France-Belgique 66: 77-110.
1932.

yuny 15; 1943

La famille des Folliculinidae (In-
fusoria Heterotricha). Mém. Mus. Hist.
Nat. Belgique, ser. 2, fasc. 3: 1129-1175.

1936.

Giarp, A. Fragments biologiques. Sur_ les
genres Folliculina et Pebrilla. Bull. Biol.
France-Belgique 19: 310-317. 1888.

Hapzi, J. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der adria-
tischen Folliculiniden (Inf. Heterotricha).
I. Subfamilie: Eufolliculininae. Acta Ad-
riatica Inst. Oceanogr. Split (Jugoslavija)
11: 1-46. 1938.

Kau, A. Urtiere oder Protozoa. Die Tier-

ZOOLOGY.—On a species of pycnogonid from the North Pacific.'
(Communicated by CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. )

HEDGPETH.

The species of pycnogonid here described is
based on specimens named and designated as
types by the late Dr. Louis Giltay, and de-
posited as such in the United States National
Museum. After this paper was submitted for
printing, Dr. William A. Hilton published pre-
liminary diagnoses of some new species in Co-
lossendeis, the genus concerned, including one
under the same name.” Although the diagnosis
is vague, and incorrect in one detail (“‘ocular
tubercle . . . not pointed,” p. 3), the specimens
consulted undoubtedly are the same species
and were evidently labeled by Dr. Giltay. As it
may be many years before descriptions and
figures of these numerous preliminary species
are published, I have deemed it wise to proceed
with this paper in order to clarify the status of
at least one of these species. Inasmuch as all
the material examined appears to have been
labeled by Dr. Giltay, his type designation,
supported by the description and figure herein,
should not be abandoned in favor of that in a
brief diagnosis. Although it is impossible, of
course, to credit Dr. Giltay with the author-
ship of this species, it is unfortunate that his
label name was not acknowledged in the pre-
liminary diagnosis. The type specimens were
taken by the U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries steamer
Albatross.

Genus Colossendeis Jarschinsky
Colossendeis tenera Hilton?

Holotype.—Male; Albatross station 3346,
44°31’ N., 124°52’ W., 786 fathoms, September
22, 1890.

1 Received March 30, 1943.

* Hinton, W. A. Pycnogonids from the Pacific.
Pomona Journ. Ent. and Zool. 35 (1): 2-4. 1943.

HEDGPETH: A PYCNOGONID FROM THE NORTH PACIFIC

223

welt Deutschlands, pt. 25. Jena, 1932.

Mosius, K. Das Flaschentierchen, Folliculina
ampulla. Abh. Nat. Wiss. Hamburg 10:
1-15. 1887.

Mtuumr, O. F. Animalcula infusoria fluvia-
tilua et marina. MHavniae, 1786.

SAHRHAGE, H. Uber die Organisation und den
Tetlungsvorgang des Flaschentierchens (Fol-
liculina ampulla). Arch. fiir Protistenk.
37: 39-171. 1917.

Wricut, 8. Description of new Protozoa.
Edinburgh New Philos. Journ., new ser.,
10: 97-101, pl. 7. 1859.

JOEL W.

Paratypes.—Male; Albatross station 3074,
47°22/00"" N., 125°48/30" W., 877 fathoms,
June 29, 1889. Three females; Albatross station
2859, 55°20’ N., 136°20’ W., 1,569 fathoms,
August 29, 1888.

Description.—Trunk slender, unsegmented,
lateral processes separated by spaces somewhat
narrower than their own diameter, except the
posterior pair, which appears to be more widely
separated than the preceding pairs. The eye
tubercle is very high, narrowly conical, and
tapers to a small blunt point. The eyes are
basal, large, but indistinctly pigmented. The
anterior pair is larger than the posterior.

Proboscis slender, straight, slightly dilated
near the distal third and slightly expanded at
the tip. It is markedly longer than the trunk.

Palpus covered with minute setae, especially
the distal joints. Basal joint much broader than
long; second joint straight, sticklike; third
joint not much longer than wide, slightly
curved; fourth joint little more than half as
long as second; fifth joint shorter than sixth;
seventh shorter than wide; eighth about three
times as long as seventh; ninth joint slightly
longer than eighth.

Abdomen papilliform, directed upward at an
angle and longer than the last lateral processes.

Oviger: First and second joints subequal;
third joint about half again as long as first;
fourth and sixth long, nearly straight, subequal,
or sixth slightly longer than fourth in the male;
fifth joint about half as long as fourth. Ter-
minal segments diminishing in length distally,
with 7 to 10 flat, finely denticulated spines in
the largest rows. Terminal claw heavy, curved,
about four times as long as basal width.

Third leg: Coxae subequal. Femur slightly

224 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 7

longer than first tibia, which is slightly longer MEASUREMENTS
than the second tibia. Tarsus longer than pro- sia oie! Paratype, 2
podus, terminal claw longer than propodus but eg ES ee ay namie a ees oe mc
not as lone as tarsus) ‘Whe legs! areystraieht, “Casnalceerment a meeee 1.8 1.9
slender, and without marked swellings or pro- Width,secondlateralprocess 3.0 3.0
eaeranices Abdomen tcdc schon 0.8 1.0
; be : IDK WHOS Oso55cc0c0nsuee x (tip broken) 2.0
Remarks——This species resembles Colos- Third leg:
sendeis angusta in size and general appearance, First coxa............ 1.0 1.0
: : Second coxa........... 1.5 1.25
but it can readily be separated from that spe- oper ap Lod ate ve
cies by its much longer proboscis. The eye emiirey ee Aco 18.0 20.0
tubercle is much higher (although in most First tibia. ........... 15.0 17.0
j HIG dart he Grae Petouneud d Second tibia.......... 11.0 11.5
specimens 18 18 € ats par 0 ge aMage ) MP ATSUS Hele ies eoeienc eet ene 4.75 4.0
and eyes are present. It is also similar to Colos- | Propodus............. 3.5 3.0
sendeis megalonyx but differs from both C. _ Were hig. coszanss a
‘ Oviger:
megalonyx and C. angusta in the character of Besa LE 1.5 vil
the denticulate spines on the oviger. Colos- Hourthyyoue cry eee 8.0 9.0
c : IMIR YOUNEs caoao0nscccn 3.0 4.0
sendeis tenera appears to be a North Pacific Sone eee 56 a0

basin species; all known localities are off the
northwestern United States.

Terminal joints coiled, not measured.

Fig. 1—Colossendeis tenera Hilton, drawn from paratypes in the U. 8. National Museum: a, Dorsal
view of paratype, <7; b, sketch of cephalic region of paratype; c, terminal joints of leg of paratype, 9 ;
d, palpus of paratype, 2; e, terminal joints of oviger of paratype, o, with denticulate spine from sev-
enth segment.

All drawings except b and denticulate spine made with the aid of a camera lucida.

Se Rae

EntomoLogy.—New species of flies of the genera Baccha :
prosopa (Syrphidae). F. M. uit. . PEA INC i

ZOOLOGY. —A falkculnde aekocintad with : a hermit crab.
DREWS AND E. G. REINHARD. 000 cua" bid 4

netes ) } ‘
C u nes VA, :

-ZooLtogy.—On a species of pyenogonid : from the North
W. HepGhere coke he

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Secretary: FERDINAND G. BricKWEpDDE, National Bureau of Standards.
Treasurer: Howarp §S. RappLeyE, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Archivist: NATHAN R. SmitH, Bureau of Plant Industry.

Custodian of Publications: Frank M. Smrzuer, U. S. National Rice ua

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

GEOCHEMISTRY.—Clays and soils in relation to geologic processes.)

S. Ross, U. 8. Geological Survey.

The importance of clays and soils can
hardly be overemphasized, for no materials
play a wider and more varied role in geo-
logic processes than do the clays and related
minerals. These have in the past been so
little understood, indeed were long looked
upon as such hopeless materials, that geolo-
gists tended to avoid the problems on which
they had a bearing and missed much of the
information that they were capable of giv-
ing after intensive study. However, ad-
vances in the knowledge of clays and the
development of efficient techniques for
studying clay and soil materials have
already contributed to this branch of geol-
ogy, and the way has been opened for new
advances. This paper presents and illus-
trates by specific studies certain geologic
problems on which clay and soil materials
have a bearing—problems some of which
have been clarified in the course of mineral-
ogic research and others on which tentative
conclusions have been reached.

During the meetings of the First Inter-
national Soil Congress in Washington in
1927, soil mineralogy was an almost totally
neglected subject, but interest began to
grow almost immediately afterward. How-
ever, the writer presented at these meetings
a paper that was based on studies in the
laboratories of the United States Geological
Survey in which it was pointed out that
many soils are characterized by minerals of
the montmorillonite group. These studies

1 Address of the retiring President of the Geo-
logical Society of Washington delivered at the
611th meeting of the Society on December 9,
1942. Published by permission of the Acting Di-

rector of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received
April 8, 1943.

Avueust 15, 1943

No. 8

CLARENCE

have since been carried forward in collabo-
ration with others, including Sterling B.
Hendricks, of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture. Contributions have come from
many sources in this and other countries.
Some of those making noteworthy contribu-
tions are Paul F. Kerr, of Columbia Uni-
versity; John Gruner, of Minnesota; W. P.
Kelley and associates, of California; Grim
and associates, of the Illinois Survey; C. E.
Marshall, of Leeds, England, but more re-
cently of the University of Missouri; Har-
rison and Hardy, of the Imperial College of
Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad; Nagel-
schmidt, of Rothemstead; Hofmann and his
associates, in Germany; Edelman and Noll,
of Germany; and Favejee, in Holland.

Work remains to be done on the mineral-
ogy of clays, but the studies have progressed
until we have a fairly adequate knowledge
of the minerals involved, their compositions,
and their physical properties. The full de-
tails of clay mineralogy are unnecessary
here, but a few of the minerals whose
properties have a bearing on geologic rela-
tionships may be briefly mentioned.

Three main groups of minerals are found
among the clay minerals: the kaolinite
group, the montmorillonite group, and the
group variously called hydrous mica,
bravaisite, or illite. All have a platy or
micaceous structure. Kaolinite and halloy-
site are the only minerals of the kaolinite
group that are known to be present in soils,
but dickite occurs in hydrothermal deposits.
These three minerals differ in the arrange-
ment of the lattice sheets but not in chemi-
cal composition, and have the following
common chemical formula:

225

226

Kaolinite
Halloysite
Dickite

Al.Si20;(O H)4

This formula indicates that kaolinite is
characterized by a high alumina-silica ratio.
The valency is completely balanced within
the crystal structure, and hence no balanc-
ing ions (exchangeable bases) are present.
There is little or no tendency for iron, mag-
nesium, or other ions to proxy aluminum in
the crystal structure. Kaolinite appears to
be the stablest of the clay minerals.

The members of the montmorillonite
group, typically developed in bentonite,
have an extremely wide range in chemical
composition. Clays are commonly assumed
to be essentially hydrous aluminum sili-
cates, and yet within this single group ferric
iron, magnesium, and even chromium may
proxy aluminum in part or even completely,
and a wide variety of ions, including lithium,
ferrous iron, manganese, and nickel, may
be present in minor amounts. Ions with a
valency of 1, 2, or 3 may take the place of
trivalent aluminum, and aluminum may
take the place of at least one silicon ion out
of four, thus playing two distinct roles in
the crystal structure. The substitution of
even small amounts of bivalent magnesium
for trivalent aluminum, and of trivalent
aluminum for tetravalent silicon, results in
a valency deficiency within the crystal lat-
tice. This deficiency is compensated by ions
that are held between the crystal sheets and
are the so-called exchangeable bases; that
is, members of the montmorillonite group
are characterized by the presence of cations
which may be exchanged for other cations
on treatment with water or other solvent
carrying the second cation. The position of
these cations between the crystal sheets
permits base exchange without affecting the
crystal structure of the clay. This stochio-
metric exchange of cation for cation dis-
tinguishes base exchange from adsorption,
although the two are commonly confused.
These bases are associated with the inter-
layer water (the water film present between
each molecular sheet), the association that
gives bentonites and related clays their pe-
culiar physical properties.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

Experimentally, almost any base or
hydrogen may be exchanged for bases oc-
curring naturally. Those occurring most
widely are calcium, which is almost com-
pletely exchangeable, and sodium, which is
usually exchangeable but not always com-
pletely so. Small amounts of potassium,
magnesium, and even aluminum may be re-
placeable, as is hydrogen, which gives the
clay an acid reaction. These ions differ
greatly in their relative ease of replacement,
which is represented by the following series:

Lli<Na<H<K <Mg<Ca

This relation indicates the reason for the
preferential fixation of calcium in most
montmorillonite even in the presence of
sodium.

The dominance of replaceable calcium
provides a readily available source of that
element in soils characterized by montmoril-
lonite minerals. The preferential fixation of
calcium also has a particularly favorable
effect on soil texture in that it promotes
flacculation, whereas sodium tends to bring
about extreme colloidal dispersion.

In the formulas below, the ions occupying
octahedral positions within the crystal
structure (those proxying aluminum) are
grouped together within the first paren-
theses. Silicon, which occupies tetrahedral
positions, follows and is also enclosed in
parentheses if partly proxied by aluminum.
The component ions are expressed as deci-
mal fractions where necessary in order to
keep the total of those in tetrahedral posi-
tions at the constant value of 4, making all
the formulas directly comparable. The re-
placeable ion is placed above the ion that it
balances, the two being connected by an
arrow. A discussion of minerals of the mont-
morillonite group may be preceded by dis-
cussions of pyrophyllite and tale, two
minerals related to the clay minerals, al-
though differing markedly in physical prop-
erties. Their formulas are as follows:

Pyrophyllite (Ale) - (Sis) - O10: (OH) 2
Tale (Megs) - (Sis) - O10" (OH) 2

The chemical formulas quoted below will
serve to illustrate the relations within the -
montmorillonite group, although they are
not intended to represent the ranges in

Ave. 15, 1943

composition fully. Complete representation
would require at least eight formulas to-
gether with rather detailed discussions, but
those included will illustrate geologic rela-
tionships. In pyrophyllite and talc there are
no appreciable substitutions of the other
ions for Al or Mg or of Al for Si; the valency
is completely balanced within the crystal
structure, and these minerals, like kaolinite,
show little or no base exchange.

Two minerals of the montmorillonite
group showing characteristic substitution
of ions are

Nay.33

Montmorillonite (Ali.s¢;Mgo.33) (Sis)O10(OH)»
Nao.33

Hectorite (Mgo.67Lio.33) S Siu y Oro A (OH,F).

The foregoing formula of montmoril-
lonite differs from that of pyrophyllite in
that 1 Al ion out of six is being proxied by
Mg. The valence deficiency that has been
introduced into the crystal lattice by this
substitution of a bivalent for a trivalent
ion is balanced by Na, which is situated
between the sheets. In the formulas this re-
placeable base is given as Na, but it is com-
monly Ca, plus small amounts of other
bases. The montmorillonite represented
here, if containing in addition the normal
content of interlayer water, differs from
pyrophyllite only in containing about 3.23
percent of MgO and 2.55 of Na,O. This
small change in composition has introduced
the property of base exchange, and the
interlayer water that brings about the
markedly different physical properties of
these minerals.

The relations between hectorite and tale
are similar to those between montmoril-
lonite and pyrophyllite. The substitution of
about 1 percent of univalent Li for bivalent
Mg, together with the Na required for
balancing the valency, has again made the
difference between tale and hectorite with
remarkably complete colloidal dispersion.

The clays of the montmorillonite group
in which Al proxies Si in essential amounts
have been called beidellite. The formula
given below represents closely the clay from
the type locality, Beidell, Colo.:

ROSS: CLAYS AND SOILS

Par
Cao.1¢
43
Beidellite (Ali 4sFe.soMg.os) (Alo.s6Sis.64)O10(0H)>2

Here ferric iron and a small amount of Mg
take the place of part of the Al, so this
formula is more repesentative of soil-form-
ing members of the group than other formu-
las presented. The exchangeable base is
represented as Ca rather than Na, and the
ions in octahedral positions exceed 2 by a
small amount.

Formulas representing two other mem-
bers of the group are given below:

Nao.33

Saponite (Mgs) (Alo.ssSis.67)O10(O0H)2
Nao.ss

3
Nontronite (Fes 0) (Alo.ssSis.¢7)O10(OH)>

In both of these formulas Si is being proxied
by Al and is balanced by Na between the
lattice sheets.

Within the same crystal structure there
may be substitutions of other ions for Al in
the octahedral group, and also of Al for Si
in the tetrahedral group. Where the triva-
lent ions, Alt* and Fet, are dominant in the
octahedral group, the number of ions in
that group is close to 2 but may exceed that
number slightly, and where bivalent ions
such as Mg are dominant, their number is
close to 3 but can not exceed that number.
Three octahedral positions are available but
are not necessarily all occupied. In none of
these formulas has the highly variable water
been included; it would, if necessary, be
represented by (+nH,0).

The members of the bravaisite group re-
quire further study, but they are known to
be widely distributed. They have a rela-
tively small base-exchange capacity, and in
some of their properties are intermediate
between micas and montmorillonite. In the
micas and bravaisite the potassium lies
between the crystal sheets, forming bonds
that tie sheet to sheet, and hence is locked
in a nonexchangeable position, in contrast
with the exchangeable bases of montmoril-
lonite, which are held on only a single sur-
face in a manner that permits their ready
displacement.

The bravaisite type of mica is not well

228

enough known to justify more than a gen-
eral formula to represent its range of com-
position, but its relation to the true micas
can be represented as follows:

Muscovite K(Al2) (AISis)O10(0H).

Bravaisite =. (Al, Fet?, Mg)o(Al, 81)4010(0H)2

Fe and Mg are present in subordinate
amounts in bravaisite but are commonly
present in greater amounts than in true
muscovite. The K has been represented as
‘one-half of that in micas, but it may range
down almost to zero. A typical formula for
_ bravaisite would be

+3 f
Bravaisite = (Alt. 65F'€0.15M go.30) (Alo.50Si3.50) O10(0H)2

An unusual clay mineral, but one forming
extensive deposits of fullers earth in the
Florida-Georgia region, has been called
altapulgite. This is characterized by a fi-
brous rather than a platy structure andseems
to be related to the so-called mountain
leather (paligorskite). The seemingly very
specialized conditions that produced so un-
usual a sedimentary material present a real
problem, but the high content of magnesium
tells something of the genetic environment.

The opallike, noncrystalline clay material
known as allophane may be present in some
soils. :

A few of the physical and chemical fac-
tors that are most important in controlling
clay formation should be mentioned. The
alteration of any parent material to a clay
or soil aggregate takes place in a physical-
chemical system whose varied factors,
taken one at a time, are approximately
known. There are, of course, many varying
sets of conditions that may dominate the
development of a clay material, but in
general it is the combined effect of difficultly
evaluated interrelationships, more than the
unknown effect of any one factor, that in-
troduces the complexity that characterizes
many clay problems.

In reality there is only one fundamental
factor in clay formation—the chemical
character of the reacting system. This may
be divided into two secondary factors: the
chemical character of the parent material

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

and the chemical character of the altering
solutions. These factors will be most con-
veniently illustrated by specific studies to
be mentioned later. The other factors are
complex and varied but serve only to im-
pede or accelerate reactions in the system.
Varying physical conditions such as perme-
ability affect the access of solutions and
hence the rate, but not the final character,
of the reaction. Time is a factor only in that
it permits reactions that proceed with ex-
treme slowness.

Organic materials have a marked effect
on soil texture, water retention, and fertility,
but the chemical effects are in general due
to their reducing action (essentially the re-
duction of ferric to ferrous iron) and to the
solution and removal of bases by organic
acids. In humid and especially in cool humid
climates, and in swamps where peaty and
lignitic materials collect, the effect of or-
ganic materials is a dominant factor; in
desert regions, or where there is rapid oxida-
tion of organic materials, their effect may
be small or absent.

Living organisms play an important role
in soil processes, some of them modifying
physical relations, as when they facilitate
the access of air or water to the system.
Bacteria and other micro-organisms play a
very important role, and their use of such
materials as oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphates
contributes chemical factors to the soil- or
clay-forming system.

The mineralogic, chemical, and physical
processes discussed above provide a basis for
a general outline of the manner in which
they interact to form the three different
groups of clay minerals—montmorillonite,
bravaisite, and kaolinite.

The four distinctive relationships of mem-
bers of the montmorillonite group may be
restated: the essential role of magnesium in
the chemical composition, the entry of iron
in all proportions into the crystal structure,
the replaceable bases, and the interlayer
water between each molecular sheet. Mont-
morillonite and other members of the group
have been synthesized in the presence of
alkalies and alkaline earths, but montmoril-
lonite has been formed under the widest
range of conditions in the presence of mag-

Ave. 15, 1943

nesium. Other work indicates that alkaline
conditions may not be absolutely necessary,
especially if magnesium is present, but
montmorillonite probably does not form
under acid conditions.

Experimental evidence does not cover the
effect of other bases, but chemical composi-
tion and conditions of formation indicate
their effect rather clearly. Ferric iron enters
the crystal structure of members of the
montmorillonite group but forms no part of
the kaolinite structure; hence the presence
of ferric iron in the clay-forming system
favors the formation of montmorillonite.
Ferrous iron plays the same role as mag-
nesium in silicate minerals, so it too would
tend to favor the formation of montmoril-
lonite. Even where little or no ferrous iron
enters the crystal structure, its mere pres-
‘ence, owing to its higher solubility, would
increase the availability of iron in the clay-
forming system. The presence of organic
materials in association with suitable bac-
teria gives reducing conditions, and, there-
fore, reduction or even the absence of active
oxidation, would tend to favor the forma-
tion of montmorillonite. The lithium of
hectorite would exert the same effect as
magnesium. Other bases including calcium
and sodium tend to give alkaline conditions
and in this way promote the formation of
montmorillonite.

Chemical composition, experiments on
synthesis, and the interrelations of ions as
revealed by X-ray studies of crystal struc-
ture, combine to explain the tendency for
solid rock and detrital materials rich in
ferromagnesian minerals and calcic feld-
spars, to alter to montmorillonite.

The soils of the Piedmont region are
under investigation by L. T. Alexander and
associates of the Department of Agriculture,
and some of the interpretations by S. B.
Hendricks of the relations between parent
rock and the resulting clay minerals are
about to be published. This interpretation
shows that the soils derived from Triassic
diabase are in general composed essentially
of montmorillonite, whereas some of the
other ferromagnesian rocks of the region
under similar physical and climatic condi-
tions have weathered to kaolinitic soils. It

ROSS: CLAYS AND SOILS

229

seems evident that in the diabase the ferro-
magnesian minerals and feldspar break
down together, releasing iron (part of it
ferrous), magnesium, alumina, and silica,
giving conditions favorable for the forma-
tion of montmorillonite or beidellite. In these
other rocks the ferromagnesian minerals
break down first, the magnesium is re-
moved by solution, and the iron is either
removed or is altered to oxides. The feld-
spars break down later, and in the absence
of magnesium, and with the iron absent or
effectively isolated from reaction by oxida-
tion, kaolinite forms.

The alteration of basaltic rocks to mont-
morillonite under suitable conditions has
been described by Hosking (1940), who has
made a study of the origin of a group of
Australian soils. According to him, ‘‘It is
evident that granite types of parent ma-
terial will weather to kaolinite or halloysite
under a very wide range of climatic condi-
tions ... In the case of basaltic soils, the
internal moisture conditions ... appear to
play an important part in determining the
mineral clay type formed ... The first two
profiles (developed on basalts) are charac-
terized by good drainage conditions, allow-
ing of complete oxidation, whereas the third
is subject to a certain degree of water-
logging. The soils with good internal drain-
age, whether formed on granite or basic
rock, are both characterized by a clay
mineral of the kaolinitic type... In the
clay where waterlogging is apparent and
free oxidation restricted, montmorillonite
is formed to the exclusion of kaolinite. The
absence of crystalline iron (oxide) minerals,
despite the high content of iron in the clay
is undoubtedly due to the restriction in
oxidizing conditions, a fact reflected in the
greenish color of the clay.”

Glacial materials are composed of feld-
spars, other aluminous and ferromagnesian
silicates together with sedimentary ma-
terials derived from calcareous beds, shales,
and sandstones. On weathering aluminum,
silicon, iron, magnesium, calcium, and alka-
lies are released and a chemical system
favorable for the development of mont-
morillonite is formed.

Lamar, Grim, and Grogan (1938) give

230

the following description of the soils formed
from glacial materials: ‘‘Gumbotil is de-
rived from glacial till by weathering...
Gumbotil does not occur on glacial drift as
young as the Wisconsin drift, but is com-
mon on the older drifts—the Illinoian,
Kansan, and Nebraskan. It formed under
conditions of poor drainage usually just
below the soil layer over broad, flat upland
tracts ... The conversion of till to gumbo-
til in nature involves oxidation, leaching of
carbonates, and chemical decomposition of
the silicate materials... The original till
contained large amounts of clay minerals of
the illite group and in general the processes
of weathering have tended to remove alkali,
particularly potassium, and to alter the
illite minerals to those of the montmoril-
lonite group.”

Bentonites, whose essential mineral is
montmorillonite, have a world-wide distri-
bution and show no observable relation to
climatic zones. Their derivation from glassy
voleanic ash has long been established and
needs no discussion. This ash seems to have
fallen on land, in fresh-water lakes, in saline
lakes, and in marine embayments. The fail-
ure to show a clear mineralogical relation-
ship to these various environments is not
easily explained, but perhaps leaching was
in some places a subsequent process brought
about by ground water after burial. Such
a genetic environment has been indicated by
the work of Bramlette on the bentonites in
the Monterey shales of California.

The exact composition of the volcanic
glass from which bentonite was derived is
known for only a few occurrences, but the
associated minerals show that it was most
commonly the latite type of rock—that is,
essentially a feldspathic rock. More rarely
it was rhyolitic. In a few occurrences the re-
sulting bentonite is known to be higher in
magnesium than the glass from which it
was derived, indicating that magnesium
was derived from magnesium-bearing ma-
rine or ground waters. Marine waters are
slightly alkaline and ground waters are
alkaline or neutral.

The need for more detailed information
about the mineralogic relations of the
bravaisite group has been mentioned, and
the same is true of their geologic relations.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCHS

VOL. 33, NO. 8

Minerals of this group are dominant ma-
terials in marine shales, and in soils derived
from such shales. Over wide areas, especially
in the east-central United States, they are
major soil-forming materials.

The Ordovician of the eastern half of the
United States contains bentonitic beds that
are characterized by a clay mineral of the
bravaisite type; it therefore differs from the
more normal montmorillonite type of bento-
nite. So far as known, this type of bentonite
is confined to the Ordovician, a restriction
in occurrence that has not been explained.
The wide distribution—from Georgian Bay,
Canada, on the north to Alabama on the
south, and from Pennsylvania on the east
to Minnesota and Missouri on the west—is
one of its interesting features. Over these
wide areas, the bravaisite bentonites con-
tain over 5 percent of potash, or about one-
half of that of muscovite.

Some, if not all, of the Ordovician bento-
nites represent marine deposits, and it seems
probable that these, like the marine shales,
derived their potash from ocean waters.
However, some of the montmorillonite
bentonites that are essentially potash-free
contain marine fossils and must have formed
in marine embayments, although we do not
know that leaching took place in the pres-
ence of ocean waters.

Geologists have long known that where
potassium in solution in river, ocean, or
saline lake comes in contact with clay ma-
terials there is a preferential fixation of po-
tassium. Potassium salts are commonly
minor constituents of such waters and
sodium salts are dominant, even where the
two were originally supplied in nearly equal
amounts. Spencer and Murata in an unpub-
lished paper have shown that preferential
adsorption of potassium from sea water is
not an adequate explanation of this rela-
tionship.

The gradual inversion of montmorillonite
to bravaisite or micalike minerals seems to
offer an explanation of this preferential fix-
ation of potassium and the dominance of
potassium minerals in marine deposits. The
formulas representing mineral compositions
indicate the chemical similarity between the
mica minerals and montmorillonite, and
X-ray work shows that the crystal struc-

Ave. 15, 1943

tures of the two minerals are very similar.
There is the physical difference that the
potassium of micas is linked between the
sheets in a nonreplaceable condition. In
montmorillonite, sodium and calcium are
readily replaceable, but experiments on
soils show that potassium, even where ini-
tially replaceable, gradually becomes non-
replaceable. It seems probable that under
favorable conditions potassium comes to
occupy positions tying sheet to sheet—
that is, positions characteristic of the micas.
Thus potassium may gradually become
fixed at the expense of replaceable bases.
Kaolinite is the common end product re-
sulting from several geologic processes and
is especially characteristic of areas of deep
and thorough weathering and of areas where
leaching has been unusually effective. Its
occurrence as an end product of such rigor-
ous geologic processes is no doubt related
to its high degree of stability and its com-
mon association with the most stable min-
erals. These are commonly quartz, iron
oxides, and hydroxides, and in some occur-
rences aluminous hydroxides. The red or
red-brown color imparted to kaolinitic soils
by associated free iron oxides is in contrast
to the greenish, blue-gray, or pale-yellow
colors of montmorillonite in which ferric
iron forms a portion of the crystal structure.
The association of kaolinite with iron
oxides in many deposits shows that it
formed under oxidizing conditions. In other
deposits, from which iron had been re-
moved, the kaolinite formed in the presence
of organic materials which gave reducing
conditions. Reduction and solvent action
by organic acids favor the removal of bases,
including magnesium, calcium, and alkalies
as well as ferrous iron. The tendency for
acids derived from organic materials and
oxidizing sulphides to form kaolinite is well
_ known. It seems evident, therefore, that the
removal of bases from the clay-forming sys-
tem is the essential factor in kaolin forma-
tion and that the kaolinizing action of acids
is due to their efficiency in removing bases
rather than to their effect as acids. Long-
continued leaching in essentially neutral
waters may remove all bases, except where
active oxidation inhibits the removal of
iron. Feldspar pegmatites in the southern

ROSS: CLAYS AND SOILS

231

Appalachian region have been altered to
kaolinite to a depth of a hundred feet or
more. The pentration of acid solutions to
such depths during the course of weathering
is improbable, and such kaolin bodies have
undoubtedly been due to the leaching ac-
tion of essentially neutral waters.

The common association of iron oxides
and kaolinite should be considered in con-
nection with the earlier statement that iron
may favor the formation of montmorillo-
nite. The effect of ferrous iron in promoting
the formation of montmorillonite, as al-
ready pointed out, would be destroyed by
oxidation. Under extreme oxidizing condi-
tions iron would be leached from silicate
minerals and immediately redeposited as
oxide; in this form it would be removed
from the reacting system almost as effec-
tively as when removed by solution.

Soils formed from limestone are com-
monly characterized by kaolinite, and since
this mineral has a low base exchange ca-
pacity, such soils are commonly deficient
in calcium. On the other hand, volcanic ash
low in calcium will alter to montmorillonite
containing essential calcium.

Harrison, and later Hardy and Follett-
Smith (1931) who cited the work of Harri-
son, studied the soils of British Guiana. The
former author reports: ‘‘Under tropical
conditions, the katamorphism of basic and
intermediate rocks at or close to the water
table, under conditions of more or less per-
fect drainage, is accompanied by the almost
complete removal of silica, and of calcium,
magnesium, potassium, and sodium oxides
leaving an earthy residuum of trihydrate
(in its crystalline form gibbsite). ... This
residuum is termed primary laterite... .
The process of primary lateritisation is suc-
ceeded by one of resilication.... Under
tropical conditions acid rocks do not under-
go primary lateritisation, but gradually
change ...to more or less quartziferous
and impure kaolins... On well drained
mountain plateaux, where rainfall is very
high and more or less continuous through-
out the year, primary laterite appears to be
permanent... On badly drained low-ly-
ing areas on the other hand, primary later-
ite appears not to be permanent but gives
rise to argillaceous earths...

232

‘“‘During the passage upwards by capil-
lary attraction in dry seasons when evapo-
ration exceeds rainfall, the silica-bearing
solutions derived from underlying rock
forms surface films of moisture in the
spongy primary laterite where some of the
silica reacts with some of the finely divided
gibbsite to form a hydrated aluminum sili-
cate principally a crystalline kaolin.”’

Alexander, Hendricks, and Faust (1941)
report that, ‘“Gibbsite has been shown to be
a component of a number of soil colloids
from continental United States. It is a major
component of some of them.

“The primary weathering products of
norites, amphibolites, an epidote green-
stone schist, a diabase, and muscovite-
biotite schists, have been shown to contain
gibbsite ... Where silica is being liberated.
by mineral weathering in close proximity to
the gibbsite, resilication to kaolinite takes
place.”

The bauxite deposits of Arkansas, the
Gulf coastal region, and the valley of Vir-
ginia show an invariable association with
the more abundant and widespread kaolin
beds from which they are believed to have
been derived. The relations in all these areas
indicate that the formation of these de-
posits is not comparable to the usual picture
of laterization, where ferric iron is concen-
trated together with aluminous minerals. In
most of these areas no iron-free parent ma-
terial is available for the formation of white,
commonly very pure kaolinite, as where ka-
olin is derived from feldspar pegmatites.
In widely separated areas there is an asso-
ciation of kaolinitic materials with lignitic
beds, or with horizons characterized by
widespread swampy conditions. The rela-
tions between bauxite and lignite beds in
Arkansas has been discussed by Behre
(1932). Almost without exception ferrous
iron carbonate has been deposited in under-
lying or closely associated beds. Siderite
concretions are not rare within the beds
themselves. Thus iron has been removed, a
removal normally possible only after reduc-
tion; ferrous iron carbonate is a constant
associate; and there is a widespread associ-
ation with swamps or lignitic beds, which
provide a most efficient source of reducing

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

agents and organic acids that dissolve and
remove bases. The control that this group
of interrelations has exercised in the pro-
duction of the kaolin beds in these particu-
lar regions seems obvious. This, however,
leaves many problems that require inten-
sive study, in particular the genetic rela-
tions between the bauxite and the kaolin
beds.

In the presence of mineralizing solutions
or volcanic vapors, the pressure, tempera-
ture, and concentrations commonly favor
the formation of ferromagnesian silicates,
feldspars, and micas more commonly than
clays. In the later stages of activity, how-
ever, as temperatures decrease there is an
increased tendency for clay minerals to
form and clays have been reported from
numerous veins and other mineral deposits,
all three types of clay materials having been
identified. Dickite, the hydrothermal mem-
ber of the kaolinite group, is very wide-
spread and is commonly associated with
vein quartz. Bravaisite is probably reported
as sericite in most lists of minerals as the
two are very difficult to distinguish. If
montmorillonite is observed only in thin
section, it too may be mistaken for sericite;
however, its low mean index of refraction
clearly distinguishes it.

The relative temperatures of formation of
these three clay groups are not definitely
known, but perhaps dickite forms at higher
temperatures than montmorillonite. The
common association of dickite with quartz
and a seeming absence of associated ferro-
magnesian silicates is no doubt significant,
and the absence of iron and magnesium
may be necessary for its formation. On the
other hand, it is evident that montmorillo-
nite forms in the presence of the bases, ferric-
iron and magnesium, and under alkalic if
not alkaline conditions. The alteration of
the feldspar of pegmatites to kaolinite
under leaching conditions has been men-
tioned, but a number of pegmatites have
been described in which hydrothermal al-
teration has produced montmorillonite. In
these, introduction of bases has predomi-
nated over their removal, and montmoril-
lonite has been produced.

The genetic processes revealed in two in-

Ave. 15, 1943

teresting occurrences of clay minerals il-
lustrate the relations between kaolinite and
montmorillonite. Studies of the hot springs
of Yellowstone National Park by Allen and
Day indicate that acid waters are the result
of oxidation of hydrogen sulphide near the
surface, and that the primary waters or va-
pors are all alkaline in depth.

Fenner (1936) in his detailed studies of
the materials encountered in drill holes put
down in selected parts of the hot-spring
areas of the park, gave special attention to
the relation of these materials to depth,
pressure, and the chemical character of the
escaping vapors. He says: “The effect of
acidity is thus apparent in the formation of
kaolinite as far down as 95 feet, ... at
greater depths the alteration produced be-
idellite only.”’ That is, below the zone of
acid solutions a clay of the montmorillonite
group formed. The highest pressure meas-
ured was 27734 pounds at a depth of 2463
feet, where the temperature was 205° C.
Thus a mineral of the montmorillonite
group may form at rather high tempera-
tures and pressures in the presence of alka-
line solutions. Fenner observes that pyrite
commonly accompanies beidellite in the
Yellowstone materials.

The conclusions by Fenner about the ori-
gin of clay minerals at Yellowstone coincide
with relationships at Magnet Cove, Ark.
(Ross, 1941). Steam-shovel operations con-
nected with rutile mining have shown the
existence of a volcanic neck filled by an ag-
glomerate made up of various rock types
and enclosed in a matrix of clay minerals.
Abundant rutile and pyrite are associated
with these materials. A nearly pure feld-
spathic rock shows various degrees of al-
teration to montmorillonite. The matrix
material around rock fragments was orig-
inally glassy voleanic ash, but this has been
altered to montmorillonite, which has been
in part later altered to kaolinite. The rela-
tionships indicate that voleanic waters and
vapors carrying bases and rich in sulphides,
rose through the porous agglomerate alter-
ing both feldspar and glass to montmoril-
lonite. It seems evident that as volcanic ac-
tivity waned, these sulphide-bearing vapors
were in part condensed and oxidized in con-

ROSS: CLAYS AND SOILS

233

tact with air. This resulted in sulphuric-
acid-bearing solutions, which percolated
back into the porous agglomerate, partly
altering the montmorillonite to kaolinite.

The foregoing outline presents a much
generalized picture of soil-forming processes
in which many of the factors discussed
have been qualified as trends or tendencies.
Detailed studies of individual occurrences
will no doubt show many apparent excep-
tions, which will be cleared up only by in-
tensive geologic work involving correlation
between mineral composition and the physi-
cal and chemical factors that interacted to
produce the clay material.

The relationships between many different
parent rocks and their products of weather-
ing need to be studied. Information is es-
pecially needed about the clay minerals in
fine-grained sedimentary rocks, and the re-
sulting product, where these are exposed by
erosion and themselves undergo weathering.
The relative effects of leaching in the pres-
ence of solutions of differing chemical char-
acter have not been determined in adequate
detail. Alternate wetting and drying prob-
ably is more destructive than either con-
tinued aridity or humidity, but this question
has never been fully investigated. Inter-
mediate or transitory products may in-
tervene between the parent rock and the
end product, and may influence the charac-
ter of that product. The effect of base ex-
change on the quality of ground water is
being studied, but the effect of salts carried
in solution upon the sedimentary materials
is too little known. Is the clay or soil the
result of reactions in a single physico-
chemical system or have there been changes
that make it the result of several genetic
episodes? Is the clay material in equilibrium
with its environment or not; that is, to
what extent may clay minerals be in a me-
tastable condition? Has there been admix-
ture with materials from several sources
that developed under distinct environ-
ments? What were the conditions of final
disposition, was it in fresh or salt water?
How have all these processes been modified
by associated organic materials? Numerous
soil types from many parts of the world
have been described, and soil specialists

234

have given particular attention to the differ-
ent horizons of the soil profile, and those
geologists particularly interested in soil
problems are under obligation to consider
this work and understand the geologic sig-
nificance of soil types and soil profiles.
Much of this needed information will be at-
tained only by detailed studies of selected
areas where the greatest number of con-
trolling factors are determinable; but also
much more may be determined and re-
corded as incidental results during the
course of general geologic studies of a re-
gion. This is needed because the science of
soil geology is in many ways in the early
stages in which the mere accumulation of
information by workers in many fields is
necessary as a basis for future progress.
Here are problems for the mineralogists,
geologists, soil specialists, chemists, and
physicists—in particular geologists and
physical chemists.

Dr. W. P. Kelley, of the University of
California, one of our most far-seeing soil
scientists, presented as a part of a sym-
posium on clays at the University of Chi-
cago in 1941 a paper entitled ‘‘Modern clay
researches in relation to agriculture” (1942),
which should interest all geologists. In this
he said: “‘A knowledge as to the kind of clay
minerals found in soils bids fair to throw
important light on soil formation processes,
that is, on soil genesis...

‘““Modern researches on the clays are,
therefore, placing the subject of soils on a
new footing. They have served to emphasize
the close relationship between soil science
and geology and mineralogy ... There is
simply no point where you can separate
geological from soil processes . . .

“That clay research is drawing soil
science into closer contact with geology is
one of its important by-products. In my
opinion the closer the cooperation between
soil workers and geologists the better. In
fact I look upon several of the important
phases of soil science as aspects of geology.”

Dr. Kelley has made himself the leading
advocate among soil scientists of the neces-
sity of the geologic and mineralogic ap-
proach to many soil problems and of the
inadequacy of purely chemical methods.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

However, he and other leading soil workers
feel, seemingly not without some reason,
that geologists have not given all the help
for which their training fits them.

Clay studies are not without their bearing
on the broader problems of geology—the
problems of those geologists who are not
primarily interested in soils and related
materials. The promptness with which clay
materials react to changes in environment
is a measure of the information they may
hold. Clays respond to acid or to alkaline
conditions, to swamps or to aridity, to
oxidizing or reducing conditions, to fresh
water or to marine deposition, to the pres-
ence or to the absence of organic materials.
No one can see all the possibilities that may
come of any research, but some of the re-
sults may be suggestive.

The bentonites have told us much. These
clays are the only record of the ash showers
that fell so widely in Ordovician seas. They
are also evidence of the volcanic activity
that ringed the Gulf of Mexico in Creta-
ceous and Tertiary time, with a dozen or
more ash showers recorded in the clays of
Mississippi. They seem to present evidence
that certain embayments were of fresh or
at most brackish water, whereas other em-
bayments of the same general region were
marine. Clays have presented very definite
evidence as to the chemical character of
mineralizing solutions and no doubt will
present much more as they are intensively
studied.

The clays hold a story that will grow as
we know them better. Should we not heed
the earnest plea of men like Dr. Kelley that
geologists accept as their own some of the
problems of soils?

LITERATURE CITED

ALEXANDER, L. T., Henpricks, S. B., and
Faust, G. T. Occurrence of gibbsite un
some soil forming materials. Proc. Soil
Sci. Soc. Amer. 6: 52-62. 1941.

Beure, C. H. Origin of bauxite deposits.
Keon. Geol. 27: 678-680. 1932.

Fenner, C. N. Bore hole investigations in
Yellowstone Park. Journ. Geol. 44 (no. 2,
pt. 2): 225-815. 1936.

Harpy, F., and Fouurtr-Smiru, R. R. I.
Studies in tropical soils. II. Some char-
acteristic igneous rock soil profiles in
British Guiana, South America (includes

Ave. 15, 1943

citations of the studies of J. B. Harrison).
Journ. Agr. Sci. 21 (pt. 4): 750. 1931.

Hoskine, J. 8S. The soil clay mineralogy of
some Australian soils developed on granitic
and basaltic parent material. Journ. Aus-
tralian Counce. Sci. and Industr. Res. 13:
206-216. 1940.

Kewiey, W. P. Modern clay researches in re-
lation to agriculture. Journ. Geol. 50:
307-319. 1942.

PHYSICS.—The scientific significance of ferromagnetism.*
sachusetts Institute of Technology.

Half a century or so ago theoretical and
experimental investigations were under-
taken that revealed the main facts about
ferromagnetism. On the one hand, they
made possible the formulations of ideas that
are basic in an understanding of the subject
and, on the other hand, led to technical de-
velopments that made possible the enor-
mous electrical industry of today. It would
be interesting to follow both of these de-
velopments simultaneously, but I have
chosen to concentrate on the scientific
rather than on the engineering aspects of
the subject. Ewing, Weiss, and Curie
showed us that a ferromagnetic substance
owed its peculiar properties to the interac-
tion of elementary magnets of atomic di-
mensions, that these interactions were not
entirely of magnetic origin, and that the
transition from ferromagnetism at low tem-
peratures to paramagnetism at high tem-
peratures was not a real change of phase,
as melting for instance, but a new sort of
transition associated with a discontinuity
of specific heat rather than a latent heat.
Weiss showed that to a first approximation,
at any rate, ferromagnetism could be under-
stood as a special case of paramagnetism
in which Langevin’s fundamental equation
relating magnetization to the dimensionless
quantity nH /kT had to be modified only by
assuming that the field acting on each ele-
mentary particle was not the externally
applied field alone, but the resultant of this
field and an internal field resulting from
the interaction of the elementary magnets

1 The twelfth Joseph Henry Lecture delivered
before the Philosophical Society of Washington
at its 1210th meeting on December 19, 1942.
Received April 13, 1943.

BITTER: SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE OF FERROMAGNETISM

235

Lamar, J. E., Grim, R. E., and Grogan,
R. M. Gumbotil as a potential source of
rotary drilling mud, bonding clay and
bleaching clay. Illinois Geol. Surv. Inf.
Cire. 39: 1-23. 1938.

Ross, C. 8. Titanium deposits of Nelson and
Amherst Counties, Virginia, compared with
those of Magnet Cove. U.S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Paper 198: 1-88, 20 pls. 1941.

FRANCIS Bitter, Mas-
(Communicated by R. E. Gipson.)

with each other and on the average propor-
tional to the intensity of magnetization it-
self. Thermodynamically the results a-
chieved were sound and satisfying, except
perhaps that stress and strain tensors were
omitted from the theory, and all phenomena
related to magnetostriction and thermal ex-
pansion were omitted. These are, however,
not fundamentally important and can be
incorporated into the theory at the expense
of simplicity. Statistically, the results were
not satisfactory. Although the Boltzmann
constant appears, this is due only to the in-
corporation of the theory of paramagnet-
ism, and the real problem of interpreting
the atomic interactions is avoided alto-
gether by the simple assumption of an in-
ternal field. From the point of view of
atomic physics, one important result was
achieved: namely, the specification of the
order of magnitude of atomic magnetic
moments. On the other hand, the actually
observed values of Curie temperatures of
the order of 1,000° K. could not be ex-
plained on the basis of known interatomic
fields, and the origin of these fields was a
major mystery for many years.

~ One last item remains to be mentioned to
complete the picture prior to the advent of
the quantum theory and more recent de-
velopments in atomic physics. The Weiss
theory, because of its simplifying assump-
tions regarding atomic interactions and the
internal field, predicted spontaneous mag-
netization of an entire sample to saturation
at all temperatures below the Curie point.
This was completely contrary to fact, and
left unexplained the origin of hysteresis,
and all the phenomena related to mag-
netization—of such great technical impor-

236

tance. Ewing’s work on models consisting
of many small magnets free to rotate near
each other indicated that Weiss’s spontane-
ous magnetization existed only in small re-
gions and that the magnetic interactions of
these regions was probably sufficient to ac-
count for the main features of the process of
magnetization. This was capable of direct
experimental observation, and it is interest-
ing to note that, although all the means for
making such observations were at hand,
more than a quarter of a century elapsed be-
fore these observations were actually made.
This brings us to an entirely new aspect of
the subject, which I should like to discuss
briefly by way of digression from the main
argument of this lecture. The physics of
crystals has been developing most satisfac-
torily wherever theoretical interpretation
was possible, and the advent of X-rays
helped to emphasize the fundamental regu-
larity which so much facilitated theoreti-
cal treatment. There is, however, a stage
between the atomic and the truly macro-
scopic, which has great importance and
which has properties peculiar to itself. Crys-
tallographers have, of course, made many

observations bearing on this point, and fer-

romagnetism contributes but one more of
the many aspects of the problem to be
studied. By using very fine magnetic pow-
dersthestray fieldsonferromagnetic crystals
have been studied, and the existence of a
complex and often highly symmetrical mag-
netic structure has been revealed, varying
in shape and design in a most intriguing
manner. This may be related to a more
fundamental submacroscopic or ‘‘block”’
structure of crystals, and so to the mechani-
cal properties of strength, plasticity, fa-
tigue, etc. Much work, however, remains
to be done before real progress in these fields
is to be expected.

The discovery of the spinning electron, as
well as the recognition that it was the pri-
mary source of the magnetic moment in
most ferromagnetic substances, was a nec-
essary preliminary to the advances in our
understanding of the subject due to Heisen-
berg. Of the two great advances for which
he is responsible, only one is usually empha-
sized, and that is the interpretation of the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

internal field in terms of short-range forces
postulated in quantum theory to explain a
wide variety of phenomena. The mystery of
the high Curie temperatures was satisfac-
torily solved.

The other important contribution, how-
ever, in no way depended on the quantum
theory. It was an attempt to give a satis-
factory statistical background to the inter-
nal field assuming short-range forces and
interaction between only nearest neighbors
in a crystal. The difficulty of this problem,
essentially the definition of the entropy, or
the number of states associated with any
given energy, is largely responsible for our
failure to make real progress in understand-
ing cooperative phenomena. We know far
more about the atoms themselves than
about the manner in which they ‘‘cooper-
ate’ to produce macroscopic matter. Even
for the simplest conceivable elementary par-
ticles the treatment of interacting aggre-
gates breaks down except for special cases
(the linear chain), which do not have the
discontinuous properties of particular inter-
est in actual substances. It seems that the
kind of mathematical functions we use are
inherently unsuitable and that mathemati-
cians must develop for us some new treat-
ment of discontinuities of various sorts
before we can handle phases and their transi-
tions with anything like the satisfying ele-
gance with which we describe simpler
atomic processes. Since it was not possible
to derive the entropy function, Heisenberg
assumed that it could be adequately de-
scribed in terms of a suitably chosen func-
tion containing parameters that could be
calculated for the particular kind of atom
assumed. This led to equations essentially
similar to those first presented by Weiss,
but with two relevant modifications. These
were, first, that the equations were consist-
ent with the idea of short range forces, and,
second, that ferromagnetism could exist
only in certain types of crystals, and prob-
ably not in simple cubic lattices. The equa-
tions broke down at low temperature,
however, because of the limitations of the
approximation used. They also gave some
indication of why ferromagnetism appeared
only in certain ones of the transition ele-

Ava. 15, 1943

ments, but the treatment was inherently
too complicated to allow detailed analyses
of particular substances to be made. It was
a tantalizing prospect to interpret the be-
havior of alloys with various degrees of
order and disorder and in concentrations
ranging from dilute solutions exhibiting
only feebly magnetic properties to pure
ferromagnetic substances. Heisenberg’s
treatment can, in principle, take into ac-
count the particular arrangements of atoms
among each other, and may yet be of great
value in helping to interpret many purely
metallurgical phenomena. Although no
such applications of the theory have as yet
been carried through, a qualitative study
has shown that many unfamiliar magnetic
phenomena are to be expected. Experi-
_mental results, which I shall review briefly
at the close of this lecture, indicate that
these predicted anomalies do in fact exist
and that the investigation of the properties
of certain alloys and compounds at low tem-
perature may be expected to throw con-
siderable new light on the theory of atomic
interactions in solids.

It is now known that ferromagnetism is
due to electrons that are neither so tightly
bound to atomic cores as electrons in the
lower energy levels nor so loosely bound as
the conduction electrons. This intermediate
condition between tight and loose binding
seems particularly difficult to describe ade-
quately. In addition to the approach from
the atomic side discribed above, another at-
tempt was made, primarily by Bloch and
Slater, starting with the electron theory of
metals. This recognizes the fact that the
atomic energy levels are split up into over-
lapping energy bands in solids and that the
main features of metallic phenomena are
due to the extent of the population of the
energy bands by electrons. Thus the main
differences between copper and nickel are
due not to changes in the possible energy
states, but to the fact that copper has more
electrons to fill these states. The ferromag-
netism of nickel is, then, due to the fact
that a certain “‘band”’ of states is not com-
pletely occupied, and some of the proper-
ties, particularly the saturation value of the
magnetization of copper—nickel and of other

BITTER: SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE OF FERROMAGNETISM

237

alloys, can be interpreted simply in terms
of the number of electrons available to fill
the energy bands. The treatment, however,
does not lend itself to the interpretation of
many of the observed phenomena, particu-
larly those depending on the arrangement
of atoms among each other in alloys.

So much for the theoretical aspects of the
subject. Experimentally, the scope of mag-
netic phenomena investigated has been
fairly limited. The common ferromagnetic
elements have been thoroughly studied, and
certain alloys and compounds that are easy
to prepare have been investigated in con-
veniently available ranges of fields and tem-
peratures. During recent years there have
been several attempts to expand our knowl-
edge experimentally. I shall describe briefly
one that I have been associated with at
M.I.T. Drs. A. R. Kaufmann, Chauncey
Starr, and 8. T. Pan and other members of
the student body and of the faculty were to
a large extent responsible for the results ob-
tained. The aim was to explore new fields
rather than continue the investigation of
known phenomena in greater detail. This
has been done by extending the available
range of temperatures, fields, and sub-
stances to be studied as much as possible.
Up to the time that work had to be aban-
doned, temperatures ranging from that of
freezing hydrogen to the melting point of
common metals had been used. Fields up to
100,000 gauss of adequate constancy for
long periods of time had been produced in
sufficiently large volumes for investigations
in the above temperature range. These
fields were not used in the investigations
mentioned above, but can be had when
wanted. The measurements made used
fields up to 30,000—40,000 gauss. The use of
more intense fields at even lower tempera-
tures offers attractive possibilities, not only
because of the new phenomena to be ex-
pected, but also because it should make a
direct measurement of atomic magnetic
moments possible—a quantity of funda-
mental importance which now has to be de-
duced with considerable uncertainty from
other measurements. Finally measurements
were made not only on readily available
pure metals and alloys but also on some of

238

the rare earths, and on anhydrous salts of
the transition elements. In general greatest
interest lies in the substances having incom-
plete inner electron shells and in physical
aggregates in which the separation of atoms
and their geometrical arrangement are sub-
ject to variation.

The investigations carried out can not be
considered more than a preliminary survey,
but they do indicate the direction in which
more work would be profitable. It was
found that, in addition to typical paramag-
netic and typical ferromagnetic substances,
there is an intermediate class that is neither
the one nor the other. In alloys the transi-
tion from the one to the other is not sharp,
and the nature of the transition requires
further investigation. It is also qualita-
tively different in different alloy systems,
as, for instance, Cu-Ni and Cu-—Fe. The
limited solubility of iron in copper limits the
experiments, and other systems, such as
Au-Ni and Au—Fe, may be expected to
clarify the situation further. The rare
earths have interesting anomalous proper-
ties especially at low temperatures. The
main difficulty in investigating these lies in
the preparation of sufficiently pure samples.
This is technically difficult and very impor-
tant, since at low temperatures small quan-
tities of magnetically active impurities can
completely mask the normal behavior of
a substance. The salts of the transition ele-
ments, especially when the atoms are not
separated too much by water molecules,
may be expected to show interesting proper-
ties, in part because of their crystal struc-
ture, which makes possible more compli-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

cated interaction patterns then the cubic
metals. This is borne out not only by the
temperature dependence of the suscepti-
bility, which is quite anomalous in some
cases, but also by the magnetization curve
itself which in some substances has been
found to have an ‘‘S” shape as in ferromag-
netic materials, but without hysteresis.
Fields at least as intense as those used are
necessary for the study of this phenomenon.
The interpretation of the magnetic mo-
ments of atoms in various states of aggrega-
tion is also very incomplete, in large meas-
ure because of the difficulty of defining it
adequately in terms of measurements so far
made, as previously pointed out. The study
of very dilute solutions of magnetic atoms
in magnetically inactive metals at low tem-
peratures and high fields should produce
very valuable results.

Summing up, then, we may say that al-
though theory has made very considerable
progress in the interpretation of ferromag-
netic phenomena, it has so far been confined
to a limited class and a considerable expan-
sion of the ideas involved is needed. Recent
experiments have shown that much more
complicated phenomena exist than had been
suspected. Finally, it seems that the next
move is up to the experimentalist—to sur-
vey the field and define the magnetic
properties of matterin such a way that the
theorist has something definite and reason-
ably complete to work on. All the tools for
doing this are at hand, or at least can be had
when we once again return to our labora-
tories to resume the work that, for the pres-
ent, has had to be abandoned.

ANTHROPOLOGY.—The relocation of persons of Japanese ancestry in the Umited

States: Some causes and effects.

JoHN F. EMBrEE,”? War Relocation Author-

ity. (Communicated by Wiuuti1AM N. FENTON.)

BACKGROUND OF EVACUATION

In ten new communities from California
to Arkansas, there live today 107,000 per-
sons of Japanese ancestry, two-thirds of
whom are American citizens. These people

1 Based on a talk given before the Anthropologi-
cal Society of Washington, March 16, 1943. Re-
ceived May 10, 1943.

2 On leave from the University of Toronto.

were all evacuated from the West Coast as
a result of the war and are now living under
conditions of ‘‘protective custody.” This
situation presents a number of important
problems both political and sociological.
Politically, most of the issues of war and of
the peace to follow are bound up in these
“relocation centers.’ For instance, is the
United States fighting a racial war as Japan

Ava. 15, 1943

claims, or is she fighting an ideological war;
if administrative problems involving a
hundred thousand people can not be intelli-
gently and democratically solved, how are
we to solve the complex postwar problems
of, say, Southeast Asia with its mixed
population of a hundred million? Socio-
logically, some of the important problems
raised by the situation are the social effects
on the people who have been relocated.
How are these people living? What have
evacuation and life in relocation centers
done to the social organization and set of
social sanctions that had grown up in the
Japanese communities on the West Coast?

In order to gain some understanding of
present attitudes and social developments,
it is necessary to look briefly at the history
of the people since December 7, 1941. The
first effect of Pearl Harbor on the Japanese
population in California was one of shock.
The stunning effect was even greater for the
resident Japanese than for the rest of the
West Coast population. This was the be-
ginning of the much-talked-of, much-feared
war between the land of their parents and
the land of their children.

When nothing drastic happened after the
initial internment of a number of Japanese
by the intelligence agencies, people relaxed
somewhat and went about their business.
It looked as if nothing further would occur
as long as the people of Japanese ancestry
remained law-abiding and did their bit in
the war effort by buying war bonds and
volunteering to join the Army.

Then things gradually began to happen.
Civil Service dropped Japanese-Americans
from its rolls, and the Army ceased to ac-
cept Japanese-American volunteers. To the
niset, as Japanese-American citizens are
called, these were bitter pills to swallow.
Then rumors from Hawaii of sabotage and
fifth-column activity began to drift into
California via returning Navy wives and
others. In spite of the fact that these rumors
were specifically branded as untrue by na-

tional intelligence agencies operating in.

Hawaii, they gained wide currency on the
West Coast and added to the fears of the
people both military and civilian—fears
that what was said to have happened in

EMBREE: RELOCATION OF JAPANESE IN UNITED STATES

239

Hawaii could happen all up and down the
West Coast. Newspaper columnists such as
Pegler and McLemore began to beat the
drum for internment of all Japanese regard-
less of citizenship. McLemore, for instance,
wrote, ‘‘Let us have no patience with the
enemy or with anyone whose veins carry his
blood,’’? and Pegler shouted, ‘‘To hell with
habeas corpus!’ Economic interest groups

-and professional anti-Oriental groups real-

ized that in this situation there was a
golden opportunity for carrying out some
of their rather undemocratic policies.

Finally and decisively, the Army became
worried by Japanese victories in the Pacific
and by the rising tension in California. They
asked for the right to move people as they
saw fit from vital West Coast areas. On
February 19, 1942, the President issued an
Executive Order authorizing General De-
Witt, as Commander of the Western De-
fense Command Area, to move any persons
or groups of people as he felt necessary to
protect the military security of the area.

On March 2, a restricted area was de-
lineated from which all persons of Japanese
ancestry, regardless of citizenship or past
behavior, were to be evacuated. By March
29, 8,000 persons had “‘voluntarily”’ moved
eastward. As might have been predicted,
opposition arose in the inter-mountain
States to any mass migration into their ter-
ritory, and finally it became impracticable
for any further movement of this sort. Con-
sequently the voluntary migration was
called to a halt, and it became necessary to
provide some sort of Federal control and
protection.

The War Relocation Authority, which
had been established on March 18, 1942, to
assist évacués financially or otherwise in
their movement eastward, was now faced
with the problem of having to establish
areas where the people could go and live
until the crisis was passed. Thus came into
existence the relocation centers, not as a
part of any original plan to detain all the
people, but rather as a practical expedient
made necessary as a result of the war emer-
gency. It was necessary in locating sites for

3 Column of January 29, 1942.
4 February 16, 1942.

240

and establishing relocation centers to enter
into agreements, not only with the Army in
regard to internal security, but also with the
governors of the States concerned. Since all
this took time it was necessary to establish
in the meantime a number of temporary
‘“‘assembly centers” in various parts of Cali-
fornia, Washington, and Oregon. These as-
sembly centers were run by the Wartime
Civil Control Administration, a branch of
the Army. Being largely made-over parks
or race tracks, they were not intended orig-
inally for housing large numbers of people;
and even in this emergency period it was
not intended that they house people very
long. However, they functioned for several
months, and the living conditions within
them have had serious effects on the people
concerned.

The people, workers, business men, col-
lege students, priests—all were herded to-
gether in what they regarded as degrading
conditions and humiliated by being penned
behind fences and guarded by military
guards. A deep sense of shame was created
by the circumstances of induction to these
centers. The long uncertain waiting period,
during which people had little opportunity
or incentive for reorganizing community
life, had a demoralizing effect.

The relocation centers were long in build-
ing, owing to problems of location and pri-
orities, and most of them were incomplete
when trainloads of 500 évacués at a time
came into them. The trip was by coach,
usually during very hot weather. On ar-
rival the évacués, hot, tired, and worried,
went through “intake’’ where a nurse
looked at each throat and someone else took
down names and assigned housing space
without much attention to the needs and
desires of the people to be housed. The
housing was inadequate at first and meals
were disorganized. The centers were
guarded by military police, and later
barbed-wire fences were built.

EFFECTS OF RELOCATION CENTER LIFE

Halting of the assimilation process.—Each
center houses 6,000 to 17,000 people, all of
Japanese ancestry. In fact, this ancestry is
the only thing in common to the whole

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8 ~

group. Many individuals who had formerly
lived in non-Japanese communities in Cali-
fornia felt-very strange in this all-Japanese
community. There is the now familiar story
of the child who after a few days in a center
said to her mother, “‘Let’s go home now. I
don’t like it in Japan.”’ One of the effects
of this situation was the increase in the use
of Japanese language and also an increase
of the influence of older Japanese. In Cali-
fornia, before the war, young Americans 18
to 20 years old were gradually becoming in-
dependent of their parents and following
American patterns of life. In the relocation
centers the only older people to guide them
were the Japanese, and because of the
breakdown of various social and community
organizations the average person was
thrown back to a greater dependency on his
family as the only stable group left.

Effects of housing conditions.—Housing in
the centers consists of army-type barracks
divided into four or five rooms or “apart-
ments.’’ These structures were made by the
Army and are more suitable for housing
single men than for housing families. Owing
to-overcrowding in many centers, members
of more than one family are frequently
housed in one room. Toilet and bathing fa-
cilities are in a separate structure, in each
block of 12 barracks. In both the wash
rooms and the apartments there was at
first no provision whatever for privacy.
Eating was in mess halls, one for each block
of barracks. There is no special provision
for family eating, so that individuals sit
down more or less as they arrive in the mess
hall. Parents have been worried by the
effect of this type of eating on the manners
of their children: The whole housing situa-
tion has had a demoralizing effect on family
standards of living and on family controls
over children’s behavior.

Anzteties.—As a result of evacuation a
great many anxieties afflict the people living
in relocation centers. They are worried as to
the effect of relocation on their children;
they are worried as to their future and the
future of their children in the United States.
Fears in regard to food, in regard to citizen-
ship rights, in regard to all sorts of things
both large and small are prevalent. This

Ava. 15, 1943

feeling of insecurity is reflected in numerous
alarmist rumors—rumors that they will be
left and forgotten in the desert, contrary
rumors that they will be moved again to
another center, rumors that there is not
enough food in the storehouse for more than
24 hours, rumors that the hospital facilities
are dangerously inadequate.

Breakdown of community controls.—Be-
cause of the fact that people in the centers
come from various social and economic
backgrounds and owing to the disorganizing
effects of evacuation and assembly center
life, most of the usual community controls
on behavior are lacking. There has been a
breakdown, for instance, of the economic
position of fathers as heads of the family.
Some of the results of this loss of commun-
ity solidarity and control over its individ-
uals are to be seen in the growth of truancy
among the children. Delinquency of various
sorts and other antisocial conditions are in
striking contrast to the usual law-abiding
well-regulated manner of living of the Jap-
anese of California before the war. For in-
stance, there was no provision for the mak-
ing of furniture, with the result that it-be-
came necessary for individuals to pick up
scrap lumber wherever they could find it.
People who never would have thought of
such petty thievery before relocation were
forced into it by circumstances of center life.
Another element in this situation is a lack
of motivation for doing things that one does
in a normal community. Why work for $16
a month? Why study in a barracks school
with no future ahead of one?

Family dependency.—Most of the familiar
sources of social security have been lost—
the neighborhood group, the occupational
group, business or farm, and home. One re-
sult of this has been an increased depend-
ency on the family as the only stable unit
left. Many nisez who before the war were
drifting away from their parents and enter-
ing other social groups now put great store
by family unity—so much so that many are
reluctant to leave the center if a job is avail-
able because it would mean separation of
the family.

Magnification of minor issues.—Owing to
the restricted conditions of living behind

EMBREE: RELOCATION OF JAPANESE IN UNITED STATES

241

barbed-wire fences and under the control of
an administration whose acts often appear
arbitrary, many things that in an ordinary
community would cause little comment of-
ten become magnified in importance. As
already mentioned, rumors are very com-
mon, most of them of an alarmist nature.
Numerous small and violently antagonistic
cliques have grown up within the centers.
Lengthy discussion and argument over
what in normal life would be regarded as
inconsequential is typical.®

Developments of caste attitudes.—Practi-
cally all the évacués are of Japanese an-
cestry, while the Government officials are
Caucasian. The administration has better
eating and housing facilities, and members
of the administrative staff have much

greater social security than have the

evacuees. Such a social situation where one
racial group does the administrating and
another is administered leads inevitably to
a caste distinction.

Disillusionment in American democracy.—
Most of the younger évacués have been
brought up in American schools and indoc-
trinated in the ideals of American democra-
cy, which teaches, among other things, that
racial discrimination is undemocratic. To
many of these people the evacuation from
the West Coast was a shocking contradic-
tion on the part of the Government of this
basic teaching. The fact that no distinction
was made even for war veterans or families
with sons in the United States Army led to
the embitterment of many people. One man,
for instance, who was a veteran of the last
war and who was formerly a very patriotic
American citizen gradually got to brooding
over his treatment as a result of the evacua-
tion order and eventually became the leader
of an anti-American group.

Wardship.—People in the centers are
provided with food and shelter, however in-
adequate they may be. They are also re-
lieved of all responsibility for making deci-
sions affecting the community, since these
decisions are made by the Government. As

5 Similar social conditions are typical of the
internment camp for British and Americans in
Hong Kong. See Alsop’s articles in the Saturday
Evening Post for January 9 and 16, 1943.

242

a result there is beginning to grow up an
attitude of dependency on the Government,
a loss of individual initiative on the part of
some individuals. The centers also represent
security in contrast to the insecurity of the
outside world. This is perhaps one of the
most significant developments of life in the
centers, because it means that many of the
people now in the centers may never leave
regardless of what opportunities may be of-
fered to them. It is easier to sit back and let
someone else provide the food and shelter
and make the decisions than to undertake
the burden of life in a competitive society.

PRESENT POLICY OF WAR RELOCATION
AUTHORITY

The War Relocation Authority came into
the picture of evacuation shortly after the
original evacuation order. The original plan
of the Authority was to assist persons ex-
cluded from certain areas in finding work
and to provide food and shelter for those
who could not. The work was not (and is
not) restricted to persons of Japanese an-
cestry. However, as is indicated in the first

BOTANY.—kKillipiella, a new Colombian genus of Vacciniaceae.'

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

part of this paper, the relocation centers for
Japanese came into existence through a
number of unforeseen factors. Since last
summer, however, the Authority has been
concerned with the problem of how to get
people out of the centers and back into
American life. In this connection, a number
of specific things have been done. Last Oc-
tober a special leave policy was developed
whereby individuals could apply for leave
from the center if they had a job or some
other means of support. In February, 1943,
the Army reopened its ranks to a limited
number of Japanese-Americans.

In connection with the general policy of
resettlement now of primary concern to the
Authority, there are a number of special
problems that are rather difficult to over-
come. American public opinion does not
always distinguish between our Japanese
enemies in the Pacific and the Japanese-
American minority group in this country.
The growth of wardship and institutionaliza-
tion in the relocation center residents them-
selves is another factor that tends to
perpetuate the existence of centers.

A. C. SMITH,

Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University. (Communicated by WiiuiAm R.

Maxon.)

Among many plants of unusual interest
from the Chocé region of Colombia, E. P.
Killip obtained in 1939 a specimen of the
family Vacciniaceae that apparently repre-
sents a new genus. At first glance this
plant, with its stiff parallel-veined leaves
and 1-flowered bracteate inflorescences, re-
sembles the family Epacridaceae, which is
scarcely to be expected from the region.
Examination of the flowers proves it to be-
long to the Vacciniaceae, in which it is only
remotely related to described genera. It is a
pleasure to dedicate the new genus to the
collector, my colleague and friend, in appre-
ciation of his invaluable work on the flora
of Colombia. The accompanying illustration
has been prepared by Gordon W. Dillon.

Killipiella A. C. Smith, gen. nov.

Calyx cum pedicello minuto articulatus, tubo

1 Received May 1, 1943.

conico-cupuliformi, limbo erecto quam tubo
longiore fere ad basim 4-diviso, lobis papy-
raceis textura bracteis similibus. Corolla cy-
lindrico-conica, lobis 4 sub anthesi conspicuis
lanceolatis demum valde reflexis. Stamina 8
similia corollam subaequantia sub anthesi ex-
serta, toro basi corollae inserta, filamentis
liberis vel inter se basi leviter cohaerentibus,
antheris basim versus dorsifixis gracilibus rig-
idis erectis, thecis minute granulosis basi con-
spicue appendiculatis, tubulis quam thecis fere
duplo longioribus gracilibus copiose sed minute
tuberculatis per rimas introrsas apicales plus
minusve elongatas dehiscentibus. Ovarium in-
ferius, loculis 4, dissepimentis ut videtur de-
mum evanescentibus, placentis parvis basim
angulorum versus dispositis, ovulis maturis
paucis plerumque 1-3 in quoque loculo (aliis
abortivis) conspicue reticulatis. Discus ovarium
coronatus pulvinatus apice depressus, stylo fili-
formi corollam subaequante sub anthesi ex-
serto, stigmate truncato.

Ave. 15, 1943

Frutex epiphyticus, ramulis gracilibus elon-
gatis, stipulis nullis. Folia alternata parva
breviter petiolata nervis subimmersis copiosis
subparallelis. Inflorescentia axillaris uniflora
abbreviata, rhachi brevi bracteis imbricatis ad-
pressis concavis obtecta, flore solitario termi-
nali apice rhachis subsessili.

Killipiella styphelioides A. C. Smith, sp. nov.

Frutex epiphyticus, ramulis 1-2 mm. dia-
metro saepe nodis inferioribus radicantibus
dense tomentellis (pilis brunneo-stramineis
0.5-0.7 mm.longis) demum glabrescentibus basi
petiolorum incrassatis; petiolis 1-2 mm. longis
sub- vel semiteretibus circiter 1 mm. diametro
primo ut ramulis pilosis; laminis coriaceis
anguste oblongis, 15-32 mm. longis, 4-8 mm.
latis, basi rotundatis vel obtusis, apice acutis et
saepe calloso-mucronulatis, glabris vel basi et
margine basim versus pilosis, costa supra plana
vel leviter impressa subtus prominula, nervis
secundariis numerosis e basi adscendentibus
venulis inconspicuis conjunctis interdum sub-
tus prominulis; rhachi subtereti glabra 3-4 mm.
longa circiter 0.7 mm. diametro bracteas 7—10
gerente; bracteis papyraceis in sicco stramineis
oblongis vel ovatis, apice acutis vel subacutis,
margine pilis crispatis 0.15—0.3 mm. longis dense
ciliato excepto glabris, bracteis inferioribus
minimis, superioribus ad 6.5 mm. longis et 3
mm. latis basim calycis circumdantibus; pedi-
cello circiter 0.15 mm. longo inconspicuo;
calyce 7.5-8.5 mm. longo, tubo 2—2.5 mm. longo
et circiter 1.5 mm. diametro pilos paucos min-
utos brunneo-glandulosos gerente, limbo lobis
inclusis 6-6.5 mm. longo, lobis oblongis basim
versus 1.3-2 mm. latis superne gradatim angus-
tatis, apice subacutis vel obtusis et inconspicue
callosis, ut bracteis ciliato-marginatis, glabris
vel interdum extus obscure brunneo-glandulo-
sis; corolla glabra tenuiter carnosa circiter 10
mm. longa et 2mm. diametro ante anthesin api-
cem versus gradatim. angustata, lobis 5-7 mm.
longis et basim versus circiter 1.5 mm. latis, ad
apicem subacutum angustatis, margine leviter
inflexo tenuioribus et obscure undulatis; fila-
mentis ligulatis tenuiter carnosis 3-3.5 mm.
longis circiter 0.3 mm. latis margine parce pilo-
sis, antheris 7.5-9 mm. longis, thecis 2.5-3 mm.
longis, appendice basali conspicua 0.2-0.5 mm.
longa saepe subspathulata, tubulis 5-6 mm.
longis; disco glabro circiter 0.5 mm. alto et basi
1 mm. diametro.

SMITH: A NEW COLOMBIAN GENUS OF VACCINIACEAE

243

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no.
1771962, collected in dense forest of the
Corcovado region, upper Rio San Juan, ridge
along Yeraciii Valley, Intendencia El Chocé,
Colombia, altitude 200-275 meters, April 24
or 25, 1939, by E. P. Killip (no. 35222).

Although the curious plant here described is
obviously a member of the Vacciniaceae, I am
unable to refer it to any described genus. At
first appearance it does not suggest the known
members of the family, its stiff leaf-blades, stri-
ate with copious ascending veins, and its 1-
flowered profusely bracteate inflorescences giv-
ing it a very distinctive aspect. The superficial
resemblance of Killipiella to the family Epa-
cridaceae is striking; its foliage is remarkably
similar to that of Styphelia spp., while its in-
florescences are precisely matched, in general
aspect, by those of certain species of Epacris
and Styphelia. Examination of the flower, with
its inferior ovary and typical vacciniaceous
stamens, indicates the true place of the Colom-
bian plant. The deeply lobed calyx-limb, which
is similar to the bracts in texture, the corolla
with elongate reflexed lobes, the slender stiff
anthers with appendaged bases and tuberculate
tubules, the conspicuous pulvinate disk, and
the few and reticulate ovules are all highly
noteworthy features.

In the most recent general revision of the
Vacciniaceae, Sleumer (Bot. Jahrb. 71: 375-
510. 1941) does not emphasize the traditional
distinction of two tribes, the Vaccinieae and
the Thibaudieae, although he does base the
major divisions of his key upon this cleavage.
In 1932 (Contr. U. 8S. Nat. Herb. 28: 320), I
briefly discussed the intangible nature of the
two tribes, and since then I have been forced
to the conclusion that such tribes are entirely
artificial. Such a genus as Killipiella, for in-
stance, demonstrates relationships with mem-
bers of both tribes, although it has no close
relatives in either. An ultimate revision of gen-
eric lines in the Vacciniaceae will probably be
based primarily upon staminal characters
rather than upon such indefinite features as
size and texture of corolla.

Killipiella appears to be a very isolated
genus. Possibly Disterigma (Kl.) Niedenzu is
its closest relative, but in that genus the pedicel
is obvious and bears two large clasping bracte-
oles at its summit. The inflorescence bracts of
Kullipiella are somewhat suggestive of these,

244

but they apparently arise from the rachis, the
actual pedicel being reduced to an inconspicu-
ous length. I have interpreted the inflorescence
of Killipiella as consisting of a short rachis,
bearing several imbricate bracts and a terminal
subsessile flower. If this interpretation is cor-
rect, such an inflorescence is probably a reduc-
tion from the racemose several-flowered type
which is common in the family. The deeply cleft

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

calyx-limb and corolla of the new genus are un-
like these organs in Disterigma, while the rro-
portionately short filaments, the basal anther-
appendages, and the conspicuous disk further
differentiate it. The copiously tuberculate
anther-tubules of Killipiella are not matched in
any other vacciniaceous genus known to me,
the tubules elsewhere being smooth, or in some
cases obscurely tuberculate at the very base.

ive

tC CLE CCC EL ee CCC EC twee rin ts
Lt ke t cn ccc’

Ce tebiak SH greet eeu eee es etecs

veel: 12 ray OA oT ASPAS osu NGau eee

Fig. 1.—Killipiella styphelioides: a, Portion of branchlet, with four inflorescences, the lowermost with
corolla in position, <1; b, an inflorescence, with projecting corolla-bud, 2; c, calyx, with one lobe re-
moved, showing disk and style, X38; d, ovule, X12; e, corolla and stamens, X38; f, stamen, introrse
view, X4;g, detail of base of stamen, <6; h, detail of apex of tubule, X50.

BOTAN Y.—Stem and foliage scab of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas).1

ANNA E.

JENKINS, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, and
Aums&s P. Vineas, Instituto Agronémico do Estado de Sao Paulo, Brazil.

New findings in widely separated parts of
the world of a previously little known but
destructive disease of sweet potato (Ipo-
moea batatas Poir.), including the discovery
of a hitherto unknown stage in the life his-
tory of the pathogen Sphaceloma batatas
Saw., are here reported. It seems desirable
also to review the two sole accounts? of
this disease, since these earlier records, in
Japanese, are not readily available to occi-
dental readers.

HISTORICAL

In 1931, Sawada (6) reported the occur-
rence in Formosa of what he termed the
1 Received March 30, 1943.

2 For a translation of these two articles the
writers are indebted to K. Katsura.

‘bud stunting disease’ of sweet potato.
This had been present in Formosa since as
early as 1910, as shown by the 19 specimens
cited in connection with the description of
the pathogen. The first of these, as well as
five others, were gathered by R. Suzuki. It
has been learned, however, from cor-
respondence with Sawada (1938) that Su-
zuki did not realize at the time that a new
disease was concerned. ‘‘When the disease is
severe,’’ Sawada states (6), ‘it is impossible
to correct it.’? He continues:

“The disease is severe in localities where
rain, dew, or mist is abundant. In high
mountainous regions sweet potatoes grown
at high elevations are easily attacked, be-
cause of abundant mist; also those grown in
shaded places because of dews. Among

Ave. 15, 1943

sweet potato varieties ‘Red Skin’ is the
most susceptible.”

In 1937, K. Goto? reported (2) severely
diseased sweet-potato vines from Kago-
shima-Ken, Amami Islands, as affected by
Sawada’s bud stunting disease. He noted:
‘The writer received a specimen of diseased
potato stems and leaves from Mr. Taro
Hoko of Kagoshima-Ken, on September 23
of this year (1937), with a note by him stat-
ing that there is an outbreak of the disease
every year in the Amami Islands, and ask-
ing the author’s opinion regarding the dis-
ease. He was of the opinion that the disease
is caused by a fungus belonging to Sphace-
loma, since it resembles anthracnose of
grapes.” (Fig. 1, C.)

Goto referred to the vine disease of sweet
potatoes as “shoot scab.” It is here called
“stem and foliage scab.”

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE

In September, 1937, R. G. Oakley, of the
United States Bureau of Entomology and
Plant Quarantine, found this same disease
on the island of Guam; he sent specimens to
his Bureau, whence they were referred to
the senior writer, who made the diagnosis.
The symptoms represented (Fig. 1, B) were
entirely in agreement with the description.
A specimen from Guam was then sent to
Sawada, who was of the same opinion and
who contributed part of the type specimen
of Sphaceloma batatas (Fig. 1, A).

In 1938 and 1939 Oakley again sent speci-
mens of the disease from Guam. In trans-
mitting the specimen of 1938 (Guam 726)
he wrote’ that ‘‘the appearance of sweet
potatoes affected by the disorder is very un-
usual as they, in some cases, grow straight
upwards a foot higher than vines growing
normally.’’ He has furnished a summary of
the prevalence of the disease in Guam dur-
ing 1937-1939 as follows:

“The disease was plentiful in 1937 when
patches of infected vines could be discerned
at a distance of 25 yards by the straight

’ Laboratory of Black-rot Control, Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, Tiba, Japan.

4 Letter dated June 5, 1938, addressed to E. R.
Sasscer, Division of Foreign Plant Quarantine.

JENKINS AND VIEGAS: STEM AND FOLIAGE SCAB OF SWEET POTATO

245

and high growing shoots,” these extending
‘above the normal growth. Field infections
in 1938 were less plentiful, and in 1939 dis-
eased vines could rarely be found and then
only after extended search.”’

In Guam, where sweet potatoes have
long been cultivated, only two previous
references to diseases of the crop have been
found. During Weston’s (7) plant-disease
survey of the island in 1918, he reported
white rust (Albugo sp.). Several years ear-
lier, when David T. Fullaway, entomologist
of the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment
Station, made an entomological survey of
Guam (1), he found “‘sweet potatoes badly
blighted by a fungus disease.’’ In 1938,
replying to an inquiry, accompanied by a
photograph of a specimen from Guam (Fig.
1, B), he wrote that he believed this disease
was the same as that discovered by Oakley
in 1937, although it was difficult to remem-
ber over so long a period. About this time
replies to similar inquiries were received
as follows: O. H. Swezy, of Hawaii, who
made an insect pest survey in Guam in
1936, wrote: ‘“‘My recollection is that the
leaves [of sweet potatoes] were always in
good condition, except for a small amount
of caterpillar work, which was distinctly
different from the condition shown in your
photos.’”’ G. O. Ocfemia stated that so far
as he knew, stem and foliage scab had not
been found in the Philippines. G. K. Parris,
who catalogued the plant diseases of Hawaii
(4), wrote that the disease had not been
recorded in that Territory.

In Brazil stem and foliage scab of sweet
potatoes was discovered on plants growing
on the experiment farm of the Instituto
Agronomico at Campinas, first in January,
1939, by A. S. Costa, and again in February,
1940, by O. Boock. Diseased specimens
gathered at Campinas are similar to those
from Pacific regions. A specimen of diseased
sweet-potato leaves from Alagoinhas, Bafa,
Brazil, collected in March, 1937, by H. S.
Fawcett and A. A. Bitancourt resembles
closely the specimen from Campinas and
evidently represents the same disease. It
was collected as a possible Sphaceloma dis-
ease, but upon microscopic examination in
Sao Paulo no organism was distinguished,

246

nor was any isolated.’ Such a situation is
not unusual in the case of infection by
species of Sphaceloma. S. batatas was scant
on the material from Guam examined
microscopically; the specimens sent in 1938
were picked fresh and forwarded by clipper
mail but cultures from them yielded nega-
tive results as did those made from speci-
mens sent by Sawada in August, 1988.
Goto, however, succeeded in isolating the
organism.

SYMPTOMS

Symptoms of the disease on leaves as de-
scribed by Sawada are as follows:

“On leaves, veins are mostly attacked;
spots small, round or oblong, slightly con-
cave, cinnamon or vinaceous tawny, 1-2.5
mm in diam., mostly in groups, which later
coalesce; outer surface of more or less corky
appearance, depending on the degree of the
attack ; leaves become curled or their growth
checked, petioles curled, veins shrunken.”

Sawada did not describe stem cankers,
although these are present on specimens
that he sent (Fig. 1, A).

Goto states that the disease appears to
attack young organs, and that the growth
of leaves and stems becomes irregular and
produces many abnormal shapes, as well as
stunting of petioles and blades. The follow-
ing description of stem cankers is from
Goto’s account:

On the extreme tip of the shoot and some-
what below, spots appear as flat or some-
what raised purple brown dots, depressed
at the center, with a gray or light brown
border. The marginal region appears water-
soaked when the weather is damp. Farther
downward the diseased spot becomes
gradually larger, 0.5-3 mm, and is circular,
oblong, or spindle-shaped, or intermediate
between these shapes, somewhat depressed,
gray or brown, and somewhat roughened or
scablike. Where the stem is green, the spot
is surrounded by a narrow purple margin,
which is sometimes depressed. Dark brown
spots also appear on the attacked area.
Where cankers are numerous they coalesce,

° Data furnished by A. A. Bitancourt, Instituto
Biologico, Séo Paulo, Brazil, who contributed the
specimen from Alagoinhas.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

forming a large scab. Spots on petioles are
of similar appearance to those on stems;
however, they seem a little larger, over 5
mm in length. All the spots become whitish
with age.

The stem cankers on the specimens from
Brazil agree with those described by Goto.
On the leaves, however, interveinal spots
are fully as numerous as those on veins.

THE PATHOGEN

Sawada’s illustration of Sphaceloma ba-
tatas is reproduced in Fig. 2, D, and his
description of the fungus is given below:

Sphaceloma batatas Saw.

Mycelium scanty, penetrating the cell walls
of the diseased tissue, colorless, septate, 2-2.5u
in diameter, acervuli colorless, forming under
the epidermis and later become exposed by
rupturing the epidermis, 12—25u in diameter,
with 1 or 2 layers of stroma, cells polyangular,
about 4u in size, upon which many conidio-
phores are produced. Conidiophores short,
single celled, 6—-8u in length, conidia oblong,
colorless, single celled, smooth, 6—7.5u by 2.5—
3.0.

On the material that Goto studied he
found the acervuli to arise subcuticularly.
He gave the following measurements: acer-
vuli, 14-61, in diameter, with some of those
that have united once reaching over 109y;
conidiophores, about 10u long and 3y wide;
conidia 4.2-9.3 by 2.4-3.3u, or about the
same as those of the Formosan type.

Referring to the fact that Sphaceloma
fungi are difficult to isolate because of their
slow growth, Goto reported that he was able
to isolate S. batatas by placing a piece of
diseased stem upon onion agar after it had
been dipped in mercuric chloride (1:1000)
for about one minute and washed. In the
first set of cultures one out of eight tubes
showed growth after seven days; in the
second, two tubes out of eight. This growth
was similar to cultures of S. rosarum from
rose, S. tsugiz from Paulownia, and #.
fawcettit from Citrus. The cultures grew
slowly and gradually became reddish brown
and raised in the form of a crust.

Sphaceloma was not detected on speci-
mens of stem and foliage scab from Campi-

Ava. 15, 1948 JENKINS AND VIEGAS: STEM AND FOLIAGE SCAB OF SWEET POTATO 247

nas, but on stem cankers an ascomycete of
the genus Hlsinoé (3) was present. Means
are not available at this time to show
whether the Elsznoé is the perfect stage of
S. batatas. It is here suggested that it may
well be; for in all species of Sphaceloma

where the life history is known, Elsinoé has
proved to be the ascogenous stage. It thus
seems feasible to treat S. batatas as the
conidial stage of the Elsinoé discovered on
sweet potato stems in Brazil. This is de-
scribed as follows:

Fig. 1.—Stem and foliage scab of sweet potato caused by Sphaceloma batatas Saw.: A, From Taihoku,
Formosa, June 25, 1925, K. Sawada, part of the type specimen, received from Sawada in August, 1938,
<1; B, from Radio Hill, Guam, September, 1937, R. G. Oakley, 1; C, from Amami Islands, Japan,
September, 1937, T. Tamotu, received from Goto, September, 1939, 1.

248

Elsinoé batatas Viégas and Jenkins, sp. nov.
Fig. 2, A-C

Maculae in foliis plerumque circulares, par-
vae, cinnamomeo- brunneae; cancri in caulibus
circulares, elliptici vel elongati, purpureo-
brunnei interdum centro pallidiores; hyphae
intraepidermicales vel subepidermicales de-
mum fere superficiales, atro-cinereae, stromata
20-60 X 16—20u formantes; asci in stratum sin-
gulum dispositi, globosi, 4—(6 ?) sporici, 15-16u
longi, 10-12u lati; ascosporae hyalinae, 7—8u
longae, 3—4u latae, septatae, curvatae.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 30, NO. 8

On leaves, spots on interveinal regions, veins,
and petiole, generally circular, small, on the
dry specimen ‘“‘mikado brown’; on stems,
circular, elliptical or elongate, ‘‘Hays brown,”
often with ‘‘wood brown” center; mycelium at
first intraepidermal, later passing to the sub-
epidermal tissue, i.e., to the cortical paren-
chyma, which becomes hypertrophied, the cells
dividing actively in different planes, lower
cells of this tissue divide longitudinally, collen-

6 The color readings given in quotations are
based on Ridgway’s color standards (5).

Fig. 2.—Elsinoé batatas on stem cankers of sweet potato from Campinas, S40 Paulo, Brazil: A and B,
Sections showing fruiting layer of the Elsinoé, with asci (A, b and B, a) ina single series, 500; A, c,
and B, b, hypertrophied parenchyma in longitudinal sections; C, ascus from B, X1,800; D, acervulus of
Sphaceloma batatas, after Sawada,

Ava. 15, 1948

chyma also hypertrophied, and soon the entire
mass of tissue collapses, and the walls of the
necrosed tissue darken; during this alteration
of the tissue, hyphae of the fungus develop
stromatically, at maturity they are external
or practically so, dark gray, 20-60 by 16—20u
with a single row of asci; asci globose, with
4—-(6 ?) spores, 15-16 by 10—-12yu; ascospores
hyaline 7-8 by 3—4y, septate, curved. Conidial
stage, Sphaceloma batatas Saw.

On leaves and stems of Ipomoea batatas
Poir., Alagoinhas, State of Bafa, and Campinas,
State of Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Type specimen: Campinas, Sao Paulo,
Brazil, January 14, 1939, A. 8. Costa (Herb.
Inst. Agron. de Sao Paulo 2726 and Mye.
Coll. Bureau of Plant Industry 74289).

While it is likely that Elsinoé batatas might
be introduced into new regions on slips of sweet
potatoes, there is no indication as to whether it
might be carried also on dormant tubers,
which seems less plausible.

SUMMARY

Stem and folliage scab of sweet-potato
vines *was first reported from Formosa in
1931 by Sawada, for the period 1910-1928.
In 1937 Goto identified the disease from
the Amami Islands. Their accounts of the
disease are the only ones previously pub-
lished.

Specimens collected in Guam in 1937 by
Oakley are diagnosed as affected by stem
and foliage scab. In the field the disease
could be recognized by the upright growth
of the vines, as compared with their normal
growth. Sweet potatoes in Guam ‘‘badly
blighted by a fungus disease” in 1911 may
have been affected by this malady.

FRIEDMANN: A NEW HONEY-GUIDE FROM CAMEROON

249

Stem and foliage scab was discovered in
Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil, by Costa
in 1939, and by Boock in 1940, and also in
Alagoinhas, Bafa, Brazil in 1937, by Faw-
cett and Bitancourt.

Symptoms of the disease as described on
leaves by Sawada and on stems by Goto are
given, as well as Sawada’s description of
the pathogen which he named Sphaceloma
batatas.

An ascomycete of the genus Elsinoé, dis-
covered on cankers of stem and foliage scab
from Campinas, is regarded as the perfect
stage of S. batatas and is described as E.
batatas.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Fututaway, D. T. Entomological notes.
In Thompson, J. B., Summary of in-
vestigations. Ann. Rep. Guam _ Agr.
Exp. Stat. for 1911: 26-35, illus. 1912.

(2) Goto, K. Outbreak of shoot scab of sweet

potato in Amami Islands. Ann. Phyto-
path. Soc. Japan 7: 143-145, illus.
1937. (In Japanese.)

(3) Jenkins, A. E., and Brrancourt, A. A.
Revised descriptions of the genera Elsinoé
and Sphaceloma. Mycologia 33: 338-
340. 1941.

(4) Parris, G. K. A check list of fungi, bac-
teria, nematodes, and viruses occurring in
Hawaii, and their hosts. U. 8S. Dept.
Agr. Plant Dis. Rep. Suppl. 121, 91 pp.
1940.

(5) Ripeway, R. Color standards and color
nomenclature, 43 pp., illus. Washington,
1912.

(6) Sawapa, K. Descriptive catalog of For-
mosan fungi, pt. 5: 105, illus. 1931.
(In Japanese.)

(7) Weston, W. H. Report of the plant dis-
ease situation in Guam. Ann. Rep.
Guam Agr. Exp. Stat. 1917: 45-62,
illus. 1918.

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new honey-guide from Cameroon.1 HERBERT FRIEDMANN,

U.S. National Museum.

W. E. C, Todd, of the Carnegie Museum,
Pittsburgh, has recently forwarded to me
for study and identification three little
honey-guides from Cameroon. Two of these
are Indicator exilis exilis, but the third one

1 Published by permission ‘of the Secretary of
> Smithsonian Institution. Received May 6,
43.

does not fit any known species. It is appar-
ently an adult bird and seems sufficiently
different from the first two to warrant nam-
ing. Because it occurs in the same general
area as I. e. exilis, it can not be described as
a race of that species and must therefore be
treated as a distinct species. It is proposed
to call it—

250

Indicator propinquus, n. sp.

Type.—Carnegie Mus. no. 118425, ¢, col-
lected at Donenkeng, Bafia, Cameroon, April
25, 1934, by Jacob A. Reis, Jr.

Description.—Similar to Indicator exilis exilis
but with the forehead, crown, occiput, nape,
and interscapulars more greenish and definitely
streaked with dusky; the lores, cheeks, auricu-
lars, and entire underparts paler and more
greenish, less olive-gray, and the bill slightly
more swollen. Forehead, crown, and occiput
olive lake, the crown and occiput streaked with
dusky olive (the streaks formed by dark shaft
stripes); ‘‘mantle,”’ 1.e., interscapulars, similar
but with the dusky streaks wider; back, lower
back, rump, and upper tail coverts very dark
olive-brown, the feathers conspicuously edged
with olive lake tinged with olive-ocher (as in
exilis); upper wing coverts and remiges dark
olive-brown, the coverts completely edged with
olive-ocher, the remiges externally so (as in
extlis); tail as in exilis—the median rectrices
very dark olive-brown to clove brown, the
others whitish merely externally edged and
terminally broadly tipped with dark olive-
brown to clove brown; lores, cheeks, auriculars,
and sides of neck pale citrine-drab; chin and
upper throat whitish streaked with pale citrine-
drab; lower throat, breast, and sides deep
olive-buff streaked with citrine-drab (shaft
streaks) ; upper abdomen slightly paler and buf-
fier and with the streaks ashier; lower abdomen,
thighs, and under tail coverts pale creamy car-
tridge buff; bill chaetura black (when fresh);
feet water green (when fresh).

Measurements of type—Wing 72, tail 42.5;
culmen from the base 8; height of bill at angle
of gape 4.8, tarsus 14; middle toe without claw
JE Tova,

Remarks.—It may seem hazardous to de-
scribe a new honey-guide from a single speci-
men when the differences between it and the
fairly similar Indicator extlis exilis are rather
slight, but we may recall that a parallel situa-
tion is to be found in the larger species I. macu-
latus and I. feae. Thus, in speaking of the for-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

mer species, Bannerman (The Birds of Tropical
West Africa 3: 408. 1933) writes that ‘‘unless
handled, this honey-guide is impossible to dis-
tinguish from Indicator feae, and even then the
greatest care must be exercised.’ The two spe-
cies apparently occur together, as do also the
two small forms J. exilis and I. propinquus.

The possibility of the type of J. propinquus
being a seasonal variant of exzlis is ruled out by
the fact that I have compared it with specimens
of the latter species taken in January, March,
April, July, August, October, and December.
There is no seasonal plumage variation in
exilis.

Unfortunately I have had no opportunity to
examine material of the recently described In-
dicator appelator Vincent (Bull. Brit. Orn. Club
53: 130. 1933), known so far only from the
Mozambique-Nyasaland border, a couple of
thousand miles to the southeast of Cameroon.
However, in the description of appelator it is
stated that it has the ‘‘upper parts uniform and
not heavily striated... ,”’ although “the dark
centres to the feathers are evident in striations
on the forehead and crown, but do not extend
on to the nape....’’ The bill appears. to be
very similar to that of propinquus, ‘‘shorter and
narrower than any minor—in fact, of similar
length to exilis, but more swollen.’”’ Additional
information and material may some day
demonstrate the conspecificity of appelater and
propinquus, but it would be mere guess work
to claim any such degree of relationship now.
Chapin (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 75: 540.
1939) writes that ‘‘appelator ... must be a
very close ally”’ of exilis.

I am indebted to Mr. Todd for permission
to study his material and to describe the new
form included; to J. T. Zimmer, of the Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History, and to Dr.
H. C. Oberholser, of the Cleveland Museum of
Natural History, for generous loans of perti-
nent material. Through the cooperation of
these institutions I have been able to study a
series of 10 specimens of Indicator exilis exilis
as well as a good series of the larger but less
pertinent Indicator conirostris.

Aue. 15, 1943

SCHULTZ AND MILES: CHARACINID FISHES FROM SOUTH AMERICA

251

ICHTHYOLOGY.— Descriptions of anew genus and a new species of Parodontinae,

characinid fishes from South America.

LEONARD P. Scuuutz, U.S. National

Museum, and Crcit Miuss, Escuela Superior de Agricultura Tropical, Cali,

Colombia.

During the latter part of 1942 we were
comparing a specimen of a characinid fish
from Colombia with Apareiodon dariensis
Meek and Hildebrand. The Colombian fish
had a color pattern almost exactly like the
Panamanian species, but upon making fur-
ther studies we found it differed in several
respects and decided to describe it as new.

When Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann described
the genus Apareiodon (Ann. Carnegie Mus.
10: 71. 1916; genotype: Parodon piracicabae
Eigenmann), he referred Apareiodon dari-
ensts Meek and Hildebrand to it. This latter
species, from the Rio Cupe at Cituro,
Darién, Panama, was based on three speci-
mens, 105, 120, and 135 mm in length. The
second specimen, U.S.N.M. 78379, has been
carefully studied by us, and we must con-
clude that it belongs to the genus Saccodon
Kner and Steindachner.

Since we desired to understand more
thoroughly why Eigenmann would refer A.
dariensis to the genus A pareiodon, we stud-
ied all the fishes of this subfamily available
in the United States National Museum,
and, in addition, Dr. W. M. Chapman,
curator of fishes, California Academy of
Sciences, kindly lent most of their speci-
mens of this group for study by the senior
author, who appreciates this courtesy ex-
ceedingly. While working with the material,
it soon became obvious that a new genus
should be recognized and that the generic
relationships needed further examination.
This new genus is described below.

Subfamily PARODONTINAE
Parodontops, n. gen.

Genotype—Parodon ecuadoriensis Eigen-
mann and Henn, in Eigenmann, Henn, and
Wilson, Indiana Univ. Stud., no. 19: 12. 1914
(Vinces, Ecuador; Colimes, Rio Daule, Ecua-
dor).

This new genus is based on paratypes of

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
Bae sonian Institution. Received April 9,

Parodon ecuadoriensis EKigenmann and Henn

from Vinces, Ecuador, U.S.N.M. 76974, and on

another specimen of the same species, U.S.N.M
83535, from Ecuador, measuring 117 mm in
standard length.

After careful study of the 67-mm type (In-
diana Univ. Mus. 13104) of Parodon terminalis
Eigenmann and Henn (in Eigenmann, Henn,
and Wilson, Indiana Univ. Stud., no. 19: 12.
1914) from Vinces, Ecuador, we conclude that
it represents the young of P. ecuadoriensis.

Parodontops may be recognized from the
other genera in the subfamily Parodontinae by
its teeth, the two simple pectoral rays, i, 8
pelvics, along with the wide inner second sub-
orbital and narrow interopercle.

The following key will aid in separating the
various genera related to Parodontops, as well
as indicate some of the generic differences that
we have observed in this study.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF PARODONTINAE

la. Teeth in upper jaw 0+6-+0 and not in a
straight line; edge of thin upper lip free and
crossing middle of teeth on premaxillaries;
no teeth in lower jaw, the edge of which is
5-lobed; pectoral rays ii, 12 to 16; pelvics
MGWalibyaik sy (ites Mice... . Semen ate ome me
Sete epics Saccodon Kner and Steindachner

1b. Teeth in upper jaw normally 2+8-+2 (2 teeth
on each maxillary); upper lip not free but
forming part of flesh between bases of
teeth on premaxillaries.

2a. Pectoral rays ii, 14 to 17; pelvics i, 8; no

teethonlowerjaw....Parodontops,n. gen.
2b. Pectoral fin rays i, 11 toi, 16; pelvics i, 7,
rarely 1, 8.

3a, No teeth omilower jaw. <c.. 5.0 02 2 kee.
AF Rea: Apareiodon Eigenmann?
3b. Teeth at sides of lower jaw normally
3+3, but one or more may be lacking
INAS ViOUNTADS See cl cee eh te dace yr eee cep ck
....Parodon Cuvier and Valenciennes?

2 As near as can be determined from the de-
scriptions, supplemented by specimens in the
U. 8S. National Museum and from the California
Academy of Sciences, we think the following
species should be referred to this genus: Parodon
piracicabae Kigenmann, 1907 (genotype); Paro-
don affinis Steindachner, 1879 (=Parodon para-
guayensis Eigenmann, 1907); Aparezodon davisi
Fowler, 1941; Apareiodon hasemani EKigenmann,
1916; and Apareiodon itapicuruensis Kigenmann
and Henn.

3 As near as can be determined from the de-

252

Saccodon caucae, n. sp. Figs. 1, 2.
Rayapbo; Mazorcot

Holotype —U.S.N.M. 121285, a specimen,
109 mm in standard length, collected in the
upper Rio Cauca north of Cali, Colombia, by
Cecil Miles during October, 1942.

Paratypes.—All the paratypes bear the same
data as the holotype and are deposited in the
following institutions: United States National
Museum, No. 120166, 1380 mm in standard
length; Escuela Superior de Agricultura Tropi-
cal (H.S.A.T.), Cali, Colombia, a specimen 145
mm in standard length, numbered 17 in their
collection, Instituto de Ciencias Naturales,
Bogoté (1.C.N.B.), a specimen 115 mm; Mu-
seum of Comparative Zoology (M.C.Z.), a
specimen 135 mm.

These specimens usually occur in slowly
flowing streams, lazily at rest on the bottom,
frequently lying in groups of three or four and
perfectly visible. When disturbed, they dart
away extremely fast, often hiding among rocks
or seeking protection by brush along the banks.
They are difficult to catch.

Description—The description is based on
the holotype and paratypes listed above. Cer-
tain detailed measurements and counts were
made, and these data are recorded in tables
1 and 2 along with similar data on the paratype
of S. dartensis (Meek and Hildebrand) and for
other species. _

The head is a little depressed, the snout

scriptions, supplemented by numerous _speci-
mens in the U. S. National Museum and from
the California Academy of Sciences, we think
the following species should be referred to this
genus: Parodon suborbitalis Cuvier and Valen-
ciennes (genotype); Parodon apolinari Myers,
1930; Parodon bifasciatus Eigenmann, 1912;
Parodon buckleyt Boulenger, 1887; Parodon
caliensis Boulenger, 1895; Parodon carrikeri
Fowler, 1940; Parodon caudalis Fowler, 1940;
Parodon gestri Boulenger, 1902; Parodon hilariz
Reinhardt, 1866; Parodon nasus Kner, 1859;
Apareiodon pongoense Allen, 1942, which has two
small teeth on each dentary of the type, as found
when examined by the senior author; and Paro-
don tortuosus Kigenmann and Norris, 1900.

The holotype of several species listed here
should be examined to determine with greater
certainty whether each of these species really
belongs in the genus Parodon, except the geno-
type, P. suborbitalis. In the young of Parodon
the teeth on the lower jaw are often undeveloped,
and probably Apareiodon and Parodon should
not be separated generically.

* Corunta and Tusa are the common names of
Parodon suborbitalis in the Magdalena Basin of
Colombia.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

rounded, caudal region a little compressed;
nasal openings separated by a valvular flap and
located just in front of the eye; gill membranes
joined with a wide free fold across isthmus; no
teeth on lower jaw, the lower lip 5-lobed; pre-
maxillaries with six teeth, arranged in a broad
V-shape, the two inner ones located farthest
forward, no teeth on maxillaries; a fold of the
upper lip covers pediculate bases of teeth;

Fig. 1—Underside of head, with enlarge-
ment of teeth and lips.

groove at sides of snout ending opposite pos-
terior ends of dentary bones and not continuing
opposite outer ring of suborbital bones; pos-
terior margin of pupil in center of head; anus
equal distance from rear base of pelvics and
anal origin; insertion of pelvics equal distance
from front of eye and midcaudal fin base; dis-
tance from pelvic insertion to anal origin 3.6
and snout to dorsal 24, depth 4.3, head 4.2, all
in standard length; least depth of caudal
peduncle 1.9 in head; second simply ray of
dorsal not quite so long as first branched ray,

posterior margin of this fin a little concave;

first and second branched anal rays longest,
rear margin of anal fin truncate; margin of pec-
toral fin a little rounded, that of pelvics trun-
cate; caudal fin deeply forked, lobes pointed;
adipose fin small, inserted over middle of base
of anal fin; pelvics inserted under rear edge of
dorsal fin base; five or six scales between anus
and anal origin; the anterior rays of dorsal,
anal, and paired fins have free membranes de-
veloped along the posterior edge of the rays
that extend backward and partially cover the
next ray, thus further increasing the stream-

Ave. 15, 1943

line nature of this species and lessening re-
sistance in rapidly flowing mountain streams;
accessory pelvic scale present; the postclei-
thral process is broad and curves behind base
of pectoral fin, more or less enclosing it dorsally
and posteriorly; breast, belly, and all of body
except head fully scaled.

Color: The general color is darker above,
paler below, with three distinct rows of elon-
gate black blotches on sides, the lower one be-

SCHULTZ AND MILES: CHARACINID FISHES FROM SOUTH AMERICA

253

ginning behind head below lateral line consist-
ing of five elongate black blotches; along
lateral line are six black blotches; above the
lateral line is a row of six or seven blackish
blotches that are connected across the back by
the same number of dark saddles, these more
or less obscure anteriorly; lower surfaces of
pectoral fins white, but upper surfaces with
a wide darkish band distally and similar colora-
tion on pelvics but less distinct; anal with a

TaBLeE 1.—Counts MapDE ON VARIOUS SPECIES OF PARODONTINAE

Number of fin rays

: Dorsal Anal Pelvics Pectorals
Species
rons yee shies habe | Sante 1 ie re ne re i al re |) ey |) aS he | aes ais. jt att,
9 9 | 10); 6 7 a We Sta tassels MGs Ip SI aes) aay PG) |) aye
Apareiodon affinis........... = 3 6 8 | — | 16 1 5 8 8) an pee ff ae] | a |} SS |] Se |] S|
AZ UGPICUTUCNSIS......6..+5. —|— 1 1/— 2);—/]—]— 2);—|— gee Se | ee | cee ee
PAROMOTU NUOQTIUI < . 5 co eters eee ss — 5 | — 5 | 10 1)};—]— i 5 3 (i —
EESTLUON DUCES ais ore cue «ois '<' =" « —_— 1 || = || WS) |) eb | = | = PS 7 9 8 —}— | — | — | — | —
PPEOTIGOCTISC. «co.cc so oss 2 v's 8 — t | — 1 2);—;}—]— 1 ie een [fee rl Se | alt eee ees
[2 GGG TC ers CIOS OO OCC IaEIa —|— 3) || == 3 i] UG | == | = |) = | f 7 A ae ee | = | |] |
WECONLCNSUS coo Fok k sels ke oes 1 2 3 6/—{10;—}|]— 1 a 2|— — | — |} — | — | — |] —
PRTECUSIUS TE 2 oleic tc)iaiaie etd ole) stein S-+ —|{— 1] — 1 2;/—|]—|— 1 fe | a ee ee ee ea
PELOTLUOSUS\e ci oh s ss es 88 2 —|/|— 2|— 2 4;—]—|]—|]— 3 ag | ae || eee Se le
Saccodon dariensis........... —|/|— 2)— 2\|;— 4/—}; — | — |] — | — |] — 2 (aa ees ieee) be ee
REMRUTEC ROS! WWetditaleee a )- ais 2s —/—]} 5}/—] 5/—]}] 2};—}]—]}]—}—}—}| —|— |} — | — |] 6] 24—-
Parodontops ecuadoriensis....| — | — fs) || == S|) —= | UG | = fe = | |S |S | SS |] S|] 1 9 a 1
Number of scales before dorsal fin
Species 11 Teepe 12 123 13 134 14 14}
Apareiodon affinis............. 1 —_ — 2 3 — — —
PAR ALO DICUTUCTISUS «2 oe cae see ees — — 1 = — es = ae)
PATOdON NUGTW. ccc. ee os ee nee — — — 2 ae =e = wis
[2 GOLNC ALIA SoS Cae Oe Oe — 3 8 il — = ee pau
PP PONGOCTISE so coe eck so ees — — — 1 — ee ee. re
EPRELDIOULIUATU Deis eicis.c ec ess es — 2 » 4 == ee fe
MER TEACCD Sie eae) «a=, cco eile wes — — — — = 1 2 2
P 1 — pars
2 peses fas
= — 1
= — 1

Fig. 2.—Saccodon caucae, n. sp.: Holotype (U.S.N.M. 121285),
109 mm in standard length. Photograph.

254 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 8

TABLE 2.—CountTs AND MEASUREMENTS (IN HUNDREDTHS OF THE STANDARD LENGTH)
MADE ON SPECIMENS OF SACCODON

dariensis caucae
Characters pee PS oes
U.S.N.M. | U.S.N.M. | U.S.N.M. I.C.N.B. BS Aeoeaae es
78379 121285 120166 63 iy
Standard length in millimeters................. 93.5 109 127 115 145 138
Bengthvof Mead ccatvcrcc.c ie eisicicts echt menpeneieteustion ates 22.3 23.9 22.8 22e2, — Pape Uf
Greatestidepinofibodyaneae ae aoe eens 23.7 24.1 24.0 24.4 — 21.0
Diameter iOMmeye sss sia cheer agee doe aa eM tase Oe S 4.82 4.40 3.78 De22 — 3.62
ene thiohisnouts.ceucrs. seis oiio toutes tienes 8.56 9.53 8.66 7.83 — 9.13
Width of interorbital space...................- 9.10 10.1 9.84 9.57 — 9.86
Postorbital length of head..................... 11.3 11.7 ibaa! 9.57 — 10.9
Least depth of caudal peduncle................ 11.8 12.4 11.8 122) — 10.1
Length of caudal peduncle.................... 14.8 14.6 15.4 — — 16.8
Snoutstomdorsalloniginy yee ecineicceeoeirr eens 48.0 47.0 44.9 47.8 — 43.1
Snoutito adiposelorieiniysee ieee 85.4 84.8 84.6 87.9 — 82.0
Snoutstoranalloricinyaene cere encrmiennc 79.4 80.7 80.0 81.0 — 76.0
Snout to pectoral insertion...............+.-+- 19.4 20.0 18.3 19.1 — 18.8
Snoutstospelwachinseruion sree ee cineca ere 53.5 54.1 54.0 54.6 — 50.4
Length of longest dorsal ray... ...............- 18.8 23.7 19.6 22.6 — 19.9
Mengethyoflongestianaliunayeae meena sete cideiee aii 14.7 17.5 14.8 17.0 — 16.0
Length of longest pectoral ray................. 19.6 20.8 18.5 19.1 — 19.6
Length of longest pelvic ray..............0.0.. 17.6 17.8 16.1 17.4 = 18.5
Length of longest upper caudal ray............. — 26.5 — PB) — 22.8
Length of longest lower caudal ray............. — —_— PAL siZ 24.4 — 21.8
SMOUtACOATUS He cian eee mani meters auclerane te faccdona eames 67 .6 69.2 68.2 69.6 == 64.8
Anus toanalvonigim acs ist iacteae Vem core telsasss lcnenere 12.0 10.7 10.6 11.3 oo il 2
Dorsal base to adipose origin. .............-.6- 29.5 29.9 29.0 — — 29.0
Dorsalefin rays) ias.osic ys aise hese tee eae lean ee ii, 10 1i, 10 li, 10 li. 10 1i, 10 li, 10
Arnal mera ysin.catasc hci, Gaerne ate weer acas li, 7 ii, 7 ii, 7 Te 7 i, 7 ii, 7
Pectoralcfin raysiaic ofc G2 es woke tessa selenide Pee li, 12-11, 12 | ii, 15-11, 15 | 1, 15-11, 15 li, 16 ii, 16 ii, 15-11, 15
Relviaerhins Paysite he o miei ces el oheey he eRe eager i, 8-1, 8 i, 8-i, 8 i, 8-1, 8 — — i, 8-i, 9
Branched caudalirayswacs 44) eerie ee 17 17 == — — =
Sealesiimlateraléliniees 24.2 cance mona ec cece 36 40 41 41 39 41
Scales above lateral line ...5..--....--5-0905-- 44 43 43 x 43 43
Seales below lateral line.....................25. 3 tor 4 34 3 34 33
Scales around caudal peduncle................. 13 14 13 = ae 13
Scales in front of dorsal fin.................... 11 134 134 — — 13
Scales between dorsal and adipose fins........... 124 144 14 — — 14
blackish blotch; dorsal with blackish pigment blackish spot..... Saccodon caucae, n. sp.
basally and a blotch distally on anterior rays; 2b. Dorsal rays ii, 9; anal u, 8; pelvics ? ui, 8;

eaudal fin irregularly barred with black
blotches and two black spots basally; peri-
toneum dusky; a black spot in axis of pelvics.

Named caucae in reference to the Rio Cauca
of Colombia, where it was collected.

Remarks.—This new species differs from
other members of the genus Saccodon as in-
dicated in the key below.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF SACCODON

la. Pectoral fin rays ii, 15 to ii, 16; scales in
lateral line 4 or 44+39 to 41+8 or 33.

2a. Dorsal rays ii, 10; anal ii, 7; pelvics i, 8;
color pattern of elongate dark blotches
arranged in three streaks along sides,

each row consisting of 5 to 7 elongate
blackish blotches; caudal fin with elon-

gate black blotches, and a pair of large

spots basally on caudal fin; anal with a

color plain, no spots or blotches on sides
or on fins. 2090.0 .5 02602. eee
Saccodon wagnert Kner and Steindachner®
1b. Pectoral fin rays ii, 12; scales in lateral line
4 or 44+35 to 37+8; dorsal rays ui, 10;
anal ii, 7; pelvics i, 8; branched caudal fin
rays 17; 11 scales before dorsal fin; 123
between bases of dorsal and adipose fins;
color of 3 rows of oblong dark blotches
along sides; black blotches in caudal fin,
and a blackish blotch on dorsal and anal

5 Saccodon wagnert Kner and Steindachner,
Abh. Bay. Akad. Wiss. 10: 31, pl. 4, figs. 2, 2a,
1864 (Ecuador).—Ginther, Cat. Fishes Brit.
Mus. 5: 301. 1864 (Ecuador).—Eigenmann,
Mem. Carnegie Mus. 9: 112, pl. 19, figs. 7, 7a.
1922 (western slope of Ecuador).

Saccodon craniocephalum Thominot, Bull. Soc.
Philom. Paris 6: 248. 1882 (Rio Guayaquil).
This species is referred to wagnert with some
doubt as the description by Thominot is lacking
in detail and appears somewhat contradictory.

Ava. 15, 1948

PETS sg ees a Saccodon dariensis (Meek and
Hildebrand)®

6 Parodon darijensis Meek and Hildebrand,
Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ. Zool. 10: 84. 1913
(Rio Cupe, Cituro, Panamd [Tuyra Basin]).

Apareiodon dariensis Meek and Hildebrand,
Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Publ. Zool. 10: 271, pl. 17.
1916.—Eigenmann, Ann. Carnegie Mus. 10: 76.
1916 (western slopes of southern Panam4).—
Eigenmann, Mem. Carnegie Mus. 9 (1): 111.
1922 (Tuyra Basin).—Breder, Bull. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist. 57: 114, fig. 5a. 1927 (Rio Tuguesa,
Panam4).—Hildebrand, Publ. Field Mus. Nat.
Hist., zool. ser., 22 (4): 248. 1988 (Rio Cupe;
Rio Chucunnaque; Rio Chiati).

Apareiodon compressus Breder, Amer. Mus.
Noy., no. 180: 4, figs. 3, 4. 1925 (Rio Tuquesa,

ZELIFF: A NEW CYCLOCOELUM FROM THE CATBIRD

255

Darién, Panamdé).—Breder, Bull. Amer. Mus.
Nat, Hist. 57: 115, figs. 5b, 6. 1927 (Rio Tu-
quesa).—Hildebrand, Publ. Field Mus. Nat.
Hist., zool. ser., 22 (4): 248. 1938 (Chucunnaque
Basin).

The senior author has examined the type of
A. compressus, A.M.N.H. 8408. The left pectoral
fin has li, 12 rays, the right one being broken off
near its base; the dorsal is broken, but study
shows 11, 10 rays; both pelvics are in good con-
dition, with i, 8 rays each; anal ii, 7. The mouth
also is injured. The free upper lip character is
clear, but the positions of the teeth are not in a
straight line as in Parodon. The lower lip is
rounded, and the 5-lobed edge found in adults is
not developed. I conclude that A. compressus is a
synonym of Saccodon dariensis (Meek and Hilde-
brand).

ZOOLOGY .—A new species of Cyclocoelum, a trematode from the catbird.t C.
Courson ZEuiFF, Pennsylvania State College. (Communicated by A. Wrrt-

MORE.)

Four specimens of flukes belonging to the
genus Cyclocoelum Brandes were collected
from a dead catbird found in Adams Coun-
ty, Pa., during 1939 by Assistant Professor
Merrill Wood, an ornithologist of the Zool-
ogy Department of Pennsylvania State
College. They were presented to the author
for identification and study. Three of them
were in good condition and were stained
with Delafield’s hemotoxylin, a slight pres-
sure being applied to the specimens be-
tween slides. No previous record has been
found of a member of the genus Cyclocoelum
in catbirds, and a study of the worms indi-
cates sufficient anatomical differences to
justify regarding them as representing a
new species.

Cyclocoelum dumetellae, n. sp.

Specific diagnosis.—Body oblong, sides nearly
parailel in middle, body slightly curved to
right, narrowed slightly anteriorly and slightly
rounded posteriorly, 8.5 mm long by 1.5 mm
wide. Cuticle rough and scaly but not spiny.
Oral sucker 0.27 mm in diameter, subterminal
and rather faintly outlined. Acetabulum lack-
ing. Pharynx 0.22 to 0.27 mm wide by 0.27 to
0.30 mm long. Prepharynx present. Esophagus
0.5 mm wide, short and somewhat sinuous. In-
testinal caeca continuous in the posterior por-
tion, typical for the genus. Excretory vesicle
between the posterior arc and body wall, with
lateral excretory canals. Testes nearly spheri-

1 Received April 29, 1943.

cal, 0.52 mm in diameter, the posterior one oc-
casionally slightly flattened anteroposteriorly.
Anterior portion of vas deferens observed; vasa
efferentia not seen. Cirrus sac 0.07 mm wide by
0.26 mm long, on right side reaching anterior
intestinal are but rarely farther posteriad.
Genital pore at the level of posterior portion
of the pharynx. Ovary 0.26 to 0.30 mm in
diameter, between the testes, but to right of
and out of line with them. Seminal receptacle
unobserved. Mehlis’s gland oblong, approxi-
mately the size of ovary. Vitellaria extending
from slightly posterior of anterior intestinal are
or fork to the posterior border of the posterior
intestinal arc, mostly between the caeca and
the margins with slight overlapping of the
former in some areas; dorsal to caeca. Trans-
verse vitelline ducts between ovary and pos-
terior testis. Ootype and oviduct not observed.
Laurer’s canal apparently absent. Ova 60u by
120u.

Host.—Dumetella carolinensis (Linnaeus).

Location.—Air sac.

Locality — Adams County, Pa.

Type specimen.—U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no.
36837; paratype, no. 36838.

Remarks.—Khan (1935) gives four groupings
of species of the genus based on the relation of
the ovary and testes and the intercaecal loca-
tion of the uterus. One of the three specimens
has the posterior testis somewhat oblong. Only
one has slight overlapping of the caeca by the
uterus. Other slight distortions or deviations
might be mentioned that would exclude a speci-

256

men from a system such as that given by Khan.
He lists 19 species, six being those described by
himself, one of which, C. nebulartum, has now
been allocated to Hoematctrephus by Lal
(1939). Bhalerao (1935) lists 11 species, one of
which is new and seven of which are not listed
by the former. Lal (1939) describes no new spe-
cies, but he suggests that Receptacoelum be cre-
ated for those species with a receptaculum
seminis. He considers Prohyptiasmus Witen-
berg to be asynonym of Cyclocoelum. Yamaguti
(1939) described C. turusig: from Tringa ery-
thropus, which makes at least six species in
sandpipers.

Fig. 1.—Cyclocoelum dumetellae, n. sp.: Ventral
view. (C'S, Cirrus sac; Ce, caecum; Es, esophagus;
Eg, egg; EV, excretory vesicle; M, mouth; MG,
Mehlis’s gland; OS, oral sucker; Ov, ovary; Ph,
pharynx; Te, testis; TVD, transverse vitelline
duct; Ut, uterus; VD, vas deferens; Vit, vitel-
laria. )

Observation of the drawings of the species
described by Khan (1935) indicates that the
curved conditions of his specimens are char-
acteristic of several species. This may be due to
contact with the tissues of the host or to a typi-
cal habit of muscular contraction. After com-
paring the characteristics of the specimens with

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 8

those of about 30 other species, particularly
North American species, considerable variation
is noted. The closest similarity is with C.
microcotyleum (Noble, 1933) and C. obscurum
(Leidy, 1887). Harrah (1922) gives a more com-
plete description of the latter.

C. dumetellae differs from the latter species in
a less forward extension of the vitellaria, sinu-
ous esophagus of uniform size, equal testes, and
(if constant) in having the anterior testis near
the left caecum; also from the former species
by the uniform size, the lesser width, presence
of an oral sucker, the diagonal relation of the
testes, and the position of the ovary on the
right side. The comparison with C. obscurum
is therefore closer than with C’. microcotyleum.
Harrah (1922) has shown that the position of
some organs in the body may be inverted in
the same species. This condition or a misinter-
pretation of the surfaces may account for diffi-
culties observed in drawings and descriptions.
The species herein described differs from C.
ovopunctatum Stossich, which is closely related
to C. obscurum, by the difference in the testis-
ovary ratio. It is not clear to the author from
the more complete description of Harrah (1922)
whether C. obscurum (Leidy, 1887) actually oc-
curs in the jewfish and also in birds since most
species of the genus have birds as hosts. The
former reports it from the western willet
(Catoptrophorus semipalmata inornata, formerly
Symphemia semipalmata inornata). It seems
likely that some error in labeling may account
for the record for the jewfish. An authority
whom the author consulted agrees with this
view:

LITERATURE CITED

BHALERAO, G. D. On two new monostomes
(Trematoda) from avian hosts in British
India. Indian Journ. Vet. Sci. and Ani-
mal Husb. 5: 49-63. 1935. ;

Harrau, BE. C. North American monostomes.
Illinois Biol. Monogr. 7(8): 1-106. 1922.

Kuan, M.H. On eight new species of the genus
Cyclocoelum Brandes from North Ameri-
can snipes. Proce. Acad. Sci. United
Provinces India 4 (pt. 4): 342-3870. 1935.

Lau, M. B. Studies in helminthology: Trema-
tode parasites of birds. Proc. Indian |
Acad. Sci. 10, sect. B (2): 111-200. 1939.

Leipy, JosepH. Notice of some parasitic
worms. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel-
phia, 1887: 20-24. 1887.

Nose, A. EK. Two new trematodes from the
American coot. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc.
52 (4): 353-360. 1933.

YamacutTl, 8. Studies on the helminth fauna of
Japan, pt. 25. Trematodes of birds, IV.
Jap. Journ. Zool. 8: 132. 1939.

CONTENTS

GEOCHEMISTRY.—Clays and soils in relation to geologic processes.

CEARENCE 8S. ROSS. eo ee Ce eee ane

Puysics.—The scientific significance of ferromagnetism. FRANCIS
Birra 2 x ee we gee ORR pL GUO Se SOND Gn ae eae

ANTHROPOLOGY.—The relocation of persons of Japanese ancestry in the
United States: Some causes and effects. JOHN F. EMBREE.....

Botany.—Kiullipiella, a new Colombian genus of Vacciniaceae. A. C.
SMITE sea ne

~Botany.—Stem and foliage scab of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas).
ANNA E. JENKINS AND AHM#ES P. VIBGAS.................-4-.

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new honey-guide from Cameroon. HERBERT
FRIBDMAND » 055008 ea a i eee

IcHTHYOLOGy.— Descriptions of a new genus and a new species of

Parodontinae, characinid fishes from South America. LEONARD

Po ScHULTZ AND “CHCTL WEBS 650 i Oe a oh

ZooLtocy.—A new species of Cyclocoelum, a trematode from the cat-
bird... C.-COURSON ZELIPRY ooo We ee a een oe ea

This Journal Is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Page

225

2395

238

242

244

249

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5 ie

: “x
See te pee
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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

SEPTEMBER 15, 1943

No. 9

PALEONTOLOGY.—Jefferson’s contribution to paleontology... Rotanp W.

Brown, U. 8. Geological Survey.

Thomas Jefferson’s life spanned the
eventful interval of 83 years from 1743 to
1826. This was a restless time when men
rebelled against political tyranny and
sought freedom of body and mind to inves-
tigate nature, engage in legitimate business,
and pursue happiness. Although he is
known best for his great contribution to the
political and humanitarian part of this
movement, the many-sided Jefferson also
wrote his name imperishably into the early
annals of science in the United States.

If, in 1797, we could have peeped into
the baggage that accompanied Jefferson
from Monticello to Philadelphia, when he
was inaugurated as Vice-President in the
administration of John Adams, we should
probably have been astonished at what we
saw. One box contained some large bones
and a manuscript describing them. This
manuscript was communicated to the
American Philosophical Society at Philadel-
phia on March 10, 1797, and was published
in 1799.” The first paragraphs introduce and
describe these bones and illustrate Jeffer-
son’s style:

In a letter of July 3d, I informed our late most
worthy president that some bones of a very large
animal of the clawed kind had been recently dis-
covered within this state, and promised a com-
munication on the subject as soon as we could re-
cover what were still recoverable of them. It is
well known that the substratum of the country
beyond the Blue Ridge is a limestone, abounding
in large caverns, the earthy floors of which are

1 Substance of an informal communication to
the Geological-Society of Washington, April 14,
1943. Published by permission of the Director,
U.S. Geological Survey. Received May 24, 1943.

2 JEFFERSON, THoMas. A memoir on the dis-
covery of certain bones of a quedruped of the clawed
kind in the western parts of Virginia. Trans. Amer.
Philos. Soc. 4: 246-260. 1799.

highly impregnated with nitre; and that the in-
habitants are in the habit of extracting the nitre
from them. In digging the floor of one of these
caves, belonging to Frederic Cromer in the county
of Greenbriar [now in West Virginia], the laborers
at the depth of two or three feet, came to some
bones, the size and form of which bespoke an
animal unknown to them. The nitrous impregna-
tion of the earth together with a small degree of
petrification had probably been the means of their
preservation. The importance of the discovery
was not known to those who made it, yet it ex-
cited conversation in the neighborhood, andled
persons of vague curiosity to seek and take away
the bones. It was fortunate for science that one
of its zealous and well informed friends, Colonel
John Stewart of that neighborhood, heard of the
discovery, and, sensible from their description,
that they were of an animal not known, took
measures without delay for saving those which
still remained. He was kind enough to inform me
of the incident, and to forward me the bones from
time to time as they were recovered. To these I
was enabled accidentally to add some others by
the kindness of a Mr. Hopkins of New York, who
had visited the cave. These bones are,

1 st. A small fragment of the femur or thigh
bone; being in fact only its lower extremity, sepa-
rated from the main bone at its epiphysis, so as to
give us only the two condyles, but these are nearly
entire.

2d. A radius, perfect.

3d. An ulna, or fore-arm, perfect, except that
it is broken in two.

4 th. Three claws, and half a dozen other bones
of the foot; but whether of a fore or hinder foot,
is not evident.

These bones only enable us to class the animal
with the unguiculated quadrupeds; and of these
the lion being nearest him in size, we will compare
him with that animal... I will venture to refer
to him by the name of the Great-Claw or Mega-
lonyx to which he seems sufficiently entitled by
the distinguished size of that member...

Then follows a comparison of the respec-
tives bones of the lion and Megalonyz. Jef-
ferson concludes:

257

258

Let us only say then, what we may safely say,
that he was more than three times as large as the
lion: that he stood as preeminently at the head of
the column of clawed animals as the mammoth
stood at that of the elephant, rhinoceros, and hip-
popotamus: and that he may have been as formid-
able an antagonist to the mammoth as the lion
to the elephant...

The remainder of the paper is devoted to
speculations as to whether Megalonyx had
become extinct. As Louisiana Territory had
not yet been purchased and explored, Jeffer-
son said: ‘“‘Our entire ignorance of the im-
mense country to the West and North-
West, and its contents, does not authorize
us to say what it does not contain.’”’ In
support of this suggestion that Megalonyx
might still be living in the western part of
the country he submitted reports that carv-
ings on rocks near the confluence of the
Kanawha and Ohio Rivers were said to de-
pict lionlike animals; and he recounted
tales of settlers and adventurers who said
they had heard the roar of strange beasts
at night near their cabins and camps.

Unless it is already clearly understood
where described fossil specimens have been
placed so that future students may examine
them, paleontologists should state expli-
citly how they have disposed of their mate-
rial. Jefferson did not neglect this office but
concluded his paper in somewhat the legal
language of a will:

To return to our Great-Claw: I deposit his
bones with the Philosophical Society, as well in
evidence of their existence and of their dimen-
sions, as for their safe-keeping; and I shall think
it my duty to do the same by such others as I
may be fortunate enough to obtain the recovery of
hereafter.

These bones are now at the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Jefferson now had an experience that
may come to all paleontologists. It some-
times happens that after a paper has been
published the writer discovers that another
has anticipated his ideas. Thus, after his
paper had been submitted, Jefferson was
obliged to add a postscript in which he re-
ports that in the Monthly Magazine, Sep-
tember, 1796, London, he had seen an ac-
count of animal remains dug up near the
LaPlata River in Paraguay. He says:

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 9

This skeleton is also of the clawed kind, and
having only four teeth on each side above and
below, all grinders, is in this account classed in
the family of unguiculated quadrupeds destitute
of cutting teeth, and receives the new denomina-
tion of Megatherium... The Megatherium is
not of the cat form, as are the lion, tyger, and
panther ... According to analogy then, it prob-
ably was not carnivorous, had not the phosphoric
eye, and the leonine roar. But to solve satisfac-
torily the question of identity, the discovery of
foreteeth, or of a jaw showing it had, or had not,
such teeth, must be waited for, and hoped with
patience. It may be better, in the mean time, to
keep up the difference of name.

As this was the only article Jefferson
published on fossils he may be classed as a
one-paper paleontologist. His interest in
paleontology, however, continued una-
bated, and during his Presidency he had
some 300 specimens of mammoth and other
bones from the celebrated Pleistocene local-
ity at Big Bone Lick, Boone County, Ky.,
spread around on the floors of the White
House. His generic name Megalonyx still
stands. He did not propose a specific name
for this creature, but this omission was ap-
propriately remedied in 1822 by the French
naturalist Desmarest who called it Megal-
onyx jeffersont. The only assembled skeleton
of this species may be seen in the museum
of the Ohio State University, Columbus,
Ohio. The animal was a ground sloth, of
herbivorous habits, and not a lion or lionlike
beast as Jefferson thought. Megatherium is
a genus closely related to Megalonyx. Re-
mains of both have been found in Pleisto-
cene deposits, chiefly in caves, at widely
scattered localities in North and South
America. |

Whether Jefferson should be considered
an inventor rather than a scientist is a
question I shall not attempt to discuss. He
was certainly a generous and enthusiastic
patron of science and was a potent cause
that science was cultivated by other men.
He was apparently a member of every lit-
erary and scientific society in the country
and was in touch with the foremost Amer-
ican scientists of the day—Benjamin Frank-
lin, Joseph Priestly (who had taken up
residence in Pennsylvania), Caspar Wistar,
etc. He also corresponded with foreign
scientists. The first president of the Amer-

Sept. 15, 1943

ican Philosophical Society was Benjamin
Franklin, the second was David Ritten-
house, and the third was Thomas Jefferson.

Jefferson once proposed the establish-
ment of a National Academy of Sciences
with headquarters at Washington and
branches in every State. This plan, how-
ever, did not materialize in his day. It
nevertheless casts a revealing light on his
mental processes. As everyone knows, he
was an individualist who believed in per-
sonal initiative and endeavor. He applied
this idea in the advocacy of States’ rights
and against paternalism in the Federal

PALEONTOLOGY.—A revision of the

U. 8S. Geological Survey.

Nearly 50 years have passed since the
publication of Wachsmuth and Springer’s
monographic treatment of the North Amer-
ican Crinoidea Camerata. Material col-
lected for some years prior to 1897 and since
that time has added considerably to our
knowledge of many of the genera and ren-
dered revisions of some of them imperative.
Springer had intended to do this work and
did so for several genera. Some 30 years ago
I pointed out:to him that a new genus was
represented within the group of species
referred to Steganocrinus. He agreed that
this was so. Doubtless owing to the pressure
of more important affairs and ill health,
Springer passed Steganocrinus by, along
with many other projects he had in mind.
Several species have erroneously been de-
scribed under Steganocrinus, and one genus
has been based on a typical form of the
genus. At this time the more obvious synon-
ymies and incorrect citations will be dealt
with. The type of Steganocrinus concinnus
(Shumard) has been found and proves to be
much like the original figure of Shumard
and quite unlike the forms subsequently re-
ferred to it by authors.

Genus Steganocrinus Meek and Worthen

Genotype.—Actinocrinus pentagonus Hall,
Meek and Worthen, 1866, p. 195.

Synonym.—Shumardocrinus Miller and Gurley.
(Genotype: Actinocrinus concinnus Shum-
ard, Miller and Gurley, 1895, p. 40.)

1 Published by permission of the Director,
U.S. Geological Survey. Received May 20, 1943.

KIRK: REVISION OF STEGANOCRINUS

259

Government. However, he did not find this
attitude inconsistent with the use of Fed-
eral money for the advancement of science
and the diffusion of knowledge which pro-
moted the welfare of the people.

Of all the sciences, stratigraphic geology
seemed least interesting to Jefferson. He
said that he ‘‘could not see any practical
importance in knowing whether the earth
was six thousand or six million years old,
and the different formations were of no
consequence so long as they were not com-
posed of coal, iron, or other useful min-
erals.”’

genus Steganocrinus.t Epwin Kirk,

Meek and Worthen (1866, p. 195) described
the genus Steganocrinus, including in it Ac-
tinocrinus pentagonus Hall, A. sculptus Hall,
and A. araneolus Meek and Worthen. They
twice indicate A. pentagonus as the typical spe-
cies, and this genotype has been recognized
generally. In a letter to Wachsmuth, dated
June 6, 1866, Worthen states: ‘‘We have made
a genus of Act. araneolus which we have named
Steganocrinus.” It has rather generally been
assumed that Meek was the responsible author
of most of the Meek and Worthen descriptions.
In the present instance it appears that Worthen
was unaware of Meek’s choice of pentagonus
as type of the genus, although the volume must
have been in press at the time the letter was
written. Of even more interest for our present
purposes, Worthen elsewhere in the same letter
writes: ‘‘Mr. Meek desires me to ask you if you
have a specimen of Act. sculptus with any por-
tion of the arms attached; if so he would much
like to see it. Perhaps you have only seen it in
some other collections, and if so he would like
to know whether there is more than one arm
to each ray.”’ Further, in a postscript, Worthen
writes: ‘“Mr. Meek also wishes to know if you
have seen the summit of Act. sculptus, and
know if it has a proboscis.”’ It is evident that
Meek was uncertain at the time whether
A. sculptus was properly to be placed in
Steganocrinus.

As restricted, the genus Steganocrinus forms
a compact, characteristic group of crinoids
known at present only in the Burlington lime-
stone and its equivalents of the lower Missis-

260

sippian. Formerly the genus was considered
chiefly to be represented in the lower Burling-
ton, but later collections have shown it to be
well represented in the upper Burlington. The
theca bears a striking resemblance to Actino-
crinus in form and ornamentation and can be
told with certainty only from the structure of
the post-I Ax brachials. Imperfect specimens,
specifically known to be Actonocrinus, are often
to be found in collections labeled as Stegano-
crinus. All the species described by Miller and
Gurley as Steganocrinus are referable to Actino-
crinus. This was inexcusable, as the specimens
are in an excellent state of preservation.

The theca of Steganocrinus runs a very simi-
lar gamut of form to that found in Actino-
crinus. The earlier species are proportionally
low and wide. The later species tend to be more
elongate. The tegmen is low and in most species
is made up of relatively few fairly large and
heavy plates. Typically the dorsal cup is lobate.
The lobation in some of the later species is very
pronounced. In Steganocrinus the RR and I Brry
alone are incorporated in the wall of the cup
proper. The distal portion of the JBr, is lat-
erally constricted. Ventrad, as seen where [Ax
is detached, there is a deep groove, the distal
face of the plate having practically the appear-
ance of a free brachial. The J Az flares outward
sharply and is essentially a part of the free
brachial series. The J Az frequently becomes de-
tached, along with the arms. As noted above, it
was on the assumed nonexistence of [Az that
Miller and Gurley based their genus Shumar-
docrinus. In some of the later species of Stegano-
crinus the R becomes proportionally larger, the
IBr,; smaller, and the J Az greatly reduced.

I Az bears a pair of rami modified into what
may be styled arm-trunks. They are uniserial,
composed of high Brr, and bear relatively
short, stout, biserial ramules. The drawing of
S. araneolus (Fig. 4) is taken from Wachsmuth
and Springer (1897). It shows the discrete [Ax
as regards the dorsal cup and the character of
the arm-trunks. The ventral groove is covered
by series of heavy plates. The structure is well
shown in Figs. 1 and 2. These figures are copied
from Wachsmuth and Springer (1897), where
they are identified as S. sculptus. They’are ac-
tually S. pentagonus. The ramules are borne on
alternate sides of the ramus. Typically each
Br bears a ramule. Exceptionally a nonramu-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

liferous Br is interposed. The ramules bear pin-
nules.

Species referred to the genus.—
Steganocrinus araneolus (Meek and Worthen)

Actinocrinus araneolus Meek and Worthen,
1860, p. 3887. ‘Burlington limestone,
Burlington, Iowa.” (Lower Burlington.)

Steganocrinus araneolus (Meek and Worthen),
1866, p. 198, pl. 15, figs. 1a, b.

Steganocrinus araneolus Wachsmuth and
Springer, 1881, p. 151 (325).
Steganocrinus araneolus Wachsmuth and

Springer, 1897, p. 581, pl. 61, figs. 2a, b.

It is possible that S. araneolus is the young of
S. pentagonus. It is suggestive that both at
Burlington, Iowa, and near Lake Valley, N.
Mex., the specimens of Steganocrinus fall into
two uniform lots. These are mainly separated
by size, for the differences in shape and orna-
mentation could readily be explained as due to
growth. There are no specimens in the collec-
tions identified as young S. pentagonus.

Steganocrinus concinnus (Shumard)

Actinocrinus concinnus Shumard, 1855, p. 189,
pl. A, fig. 5. ‘‘Encrinital limestone, North
River, Marion County, Missouri.”

Steganocrinus concinnus Wachsmuth
Springer (pars), 1881, p. 151 (325).

Shumardocrinus concinnus Miller and Gurley,
1895, p. 41. (The specimen shown in pl. 2,
figs. 7-10, is probably referable to S.
araneolus (pentagonus?).)

and

Aside from having been made the type of the
‘new genus” Shumardocrinus by Miller and
Gurley, this species has been universally mis-
understood. Meek and Worthen (1866, p. 200)
placed their Actinocrinus validus in synonymy
with it. Wachsmuth and Springer (1897, p.
582) followed this precedent and furthermore
figured as a representative of the species a form
widely divergent both from S. concinnus and
S. validus. The form figured by Wachsmuth
and Springer is here made a new species.

Wachsmuth and Springer (1897, p. 583)
stated that the type of S. concinnus was in the
‘“(Worthen) Illinois State collection at Spring-
field.”’ They must have been referring to the
type of S. validus. The type of S. concinnus is
now in the Springer collection in the United
States National Museum, having come to it by
purchase from Hambach.

The type of S. concinnus is a dorsal cup, lack-
ing the JAvz. Miller and Gurley’s (1895, p. 41)
dogmatic assertion that the species ‘‘never had

Serr. 15, 1943

any third radials’’ is, of course, utter nonsense.
It was on this supposed character that the
“senus’ Shumardocrinus was principally based.
The cup is in a good state of preservation. Un-
fortunately, no complete theca referable to the
species is known to me, although one specimen
from the upper Burlington near Burlington,
Iowa, may be conspecific. Such characters as
are shown, however, prove that the species is
distinct from any described form. The speci-
men figured by Miller‘and Gurley (1895, pl. 2,
figs. 7-10) could conceivably be a young indi-
vidual of this species, but this is doubtful. I
have not examined the specimen, but the figures
as given suggest S. araneolus or possibly a
young S. pentagonus from the lower Burlington.

The cup of S. concinnus as preserved has a
maximum breadth of 30 mm and a height of
but 16 mm. Were the JAzz preserved the
height would be increased slightly and the
breadth considerably increased. It is this low,
broad cup that must serve at present as the
chief distinguishing feature of the species. The
angle of divergence of the sides of the cup is ap-
proximately 74°. The surface of the plates is
traversed by sharply defined, radiating ridges,
such as are common to many species both of
Actinocrinus and Steganocrinus. The specimen
mentioned above from Burlington has approxi-
mately the same proportions of cup. In this
specimen the tegmen is nearly flat and made up
of a large number of small plates, none of which
is produced into a spinous process nor, indeed,
is highly tumid. The type will be illustrated
and described at some future time. At present
it is sufficient to show that in S. concinnus we
are dealing with a species with an exceptionally
low, broad cup.

Horizon and locality —Shumard’s original ci-
tation is ‘“‘Encrinital Limestone, on North
River, Marion County (Missouri),”’ collected by
Swallow. There seems little doubt, comparing
the species with a large series of described and
undescribed Steganocrinus, that the horizon is
upper Burlington.

Holotype—The holotype is in the Springer
collection in the United States National Mu-
seum, S. 1181.

Steganocrinus? globosus Wachsmuth
and Springer

Steganocrinus globosus Wachsmuth and
Springer, 1897, p. 585, pl. 61, fig. 6. ““Ooli-

KIRK: REVISION OF STEGANOCRINUS

261

tic bed of the Kinderhook group; Burling-
ton, Iowa.”

There is no way of proving that this species
is referable to Steganocrinus. The general form
of the theca and the incorporation of the radial
series in the dorsal cup argue against such an
assignment. The radial series, so far as the evi-
dence goes, indicates two discrete arms from
each ray. Being unable to give the species a
definite generic placement, I think it is better
to leave it under Steganocrinus with a query.

Steganocrinus pentagonus (Hall)

Actinocrinus pentagonus Hall, 1858, p. 577, pl.
10, figs. 6a, b. ‘Burlington limestone,
Burlington, Iowa.”’ (Lower Burlington.)

Steganocrinus pentagonus Meek and Worthen,
1866, p. 196.

Steganocrinus pentagonus Meek and Worthen,
1868, p. 474, pl. 16, fig. 8.

Steganocrinus pentagonus Wachsmuth and
Springer, 1881, p. 151 (325).

Steganocrinus pentagonus Keyes, 1894, p. 198,
pl. 24, fig. 6.

Steganocrinus pentagonus Wachsmuth and
Springer, 1897, p. 579, pl. 61, figs..3a-—e,
4a, b; also pl. 61, figs. le, f, given as S.
sculptus.

Steganocrinus validus (Meek and Worthen)

Actinocrinus validus Meek and Worthen, 1860,
p. 384.

Steganocrinus validus Miller and Gurley, 1895,
p. 42.

Cited as a synonym of S. concinnus (Shum-
ard). —

Actinocrinus concinnus Meek and Worthen,
1866, p. 200, pl. 15, figs. 9a, b.
Steganocrinus concinnus Wachsmuth

Springer, 1897, p. 582.

Over a period of years I have tried to locate
the type of this species, but without success. It
certainly is not S. concinnus, and almost cer-
tainly it is a good species. It is to be hoped that
the specimen eventually will be found.

and

Steganocrinus elongatus, n. sp.

This species is based on the form erroneously
ascribed to S. concinnus (Shumard) by Wachs-
muth and Springer (1897, p. 582, pl. 61, figs.
5a, b). As holotype, I have chosen the specimen
figured as 5a. The younger specimen, 5b, will
stand as a paratype. The holotype is somewhat
crushed and is abnormal as to the radial series
of the anterior ray. It is, however, the best
specimen known to me, and I have therefore

262

chosen it as type. The species is rare. In addi-
tion to the types there is a specimen larger than
the holotype in the Springer collection. Most of
the tegmen and a part of the dorsal cup of this
specimen are missing. Furthermore, there are a
few fragmentary and poorly preserved speci-
mens. It is probable that a few specimens are to
be found in other collections.

For Steganocrinus the species is a large one,
being considerably larger than any described
form. There is an undescribed species from the
upper Burlington of Hannibal, Mo., that is of
comparable size. The theca of the holotype has
a height of 41.0 mm and an estimated maxi-

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VOL. 33, NO. 9

mum diameter at the arm-base, uncrushed, of
about 30 mm. The paratype, as is to be ex-
pected, is relatively less elongate. The height
and diameter are approximately equal.

The general habit of the species varies con-
siderably from any described Steganocrinus.
The cup is relatively high and not strikingly
lobate. The tegmen is low and relatively small.
The plates of the cup as shown by Wachsmuth
and Springer are smooth. The paratype has
moderately strong ridges normal to the faces of
the plates. The ridges in most cases do not ex-
tend to the center of the plates. From the anal
and the r and 1 ant RR two ridges carry to the

Figs. 1, 2.—Steganocrinus pentagonus (Hall): Cross section and lateral view of portion of arm-trunk.
Figs. 3, 5.—Cyrtocrinus sculptus (Hall): 3, Specimen showing proximal portions of arm-trunks and

atrophied rami; 5, a specimen of about maximum size showing incorporation of the bachials in the cup.
Fig. 4.—Steganocrinus araneolus Meek and Worthen: Specimen showing brachial structures.

Sept. 15, 1943

BB. In all other cases there is one short, broad
ridge to each face of the plate. In older speci-
mens, as in the holotype, the ridges are present
but are poorly shown. They have practically
been obliterated by depositions of stereom.

Relationships.—The relatively elongate theca
of S. elongatus sharply differentiates it from any
- described species of the genus. S. concinnus
(Shumard), as described above, is notable for
its unusually low explanate cup.

Horizon and locality—The species is known
only from the upper Burlington. The types are
from Burlington, Iowa. One or two rather
poorly preserved specimens from Hannibal,
Mo., may be referable to the species.

Types.—The types are in the Springer collec-
tion in the United States National Museum,
5. 1182.

Cyrtocrinus, n. gen.

Synonym.—Steganocrinus (in part of authors).
Genotype.—Actinocrinus sculptus Hall.

Cyrtocrinus sculptus (Hall), n. comb.

Actinocrinus sculptus Hall, 1858, p. 582, pl. 10,
figs. lla, b. “Burlington limestone, Bur-
lington, Iowa.’’ (Lower Burlington.)

_ Steganocrinus sculptus Meek and Worthen,
1866, p. 197, text fig. 10 (in part).

Steganocrinus sculptus Wachsmuth
Springer, 1881, p. 151 (825).

Steganocrinus sculptus Keyes, 1894, p. 194, pl.
20, fig. 6 (diagram).

_Steganocrinus sculptus Wachsmuth and
Springer, 1897, p. 583, pl. 61, figs. la—d.

In Cyrtocrinus the dorsal cup shows prac-
tically no lobation as against the moderate to
strongly developed lobation in Steganocrinus.
This difference in lobation is a direct expression
of the very different character of the radial se-
ries in the two genera. The tegmen of Cyrtocri-
nus is high and composed of large numbers of
small plates. The tegmen is incompetent, in
practically all specimens seen being deformed
or missing in whole or part.

In very young specimens of Cyrtocrinus the
brachial series is incorporated in the cup wall
up to and including the J Az. In such specimens
the more distal brachial structures are clearly
shown. One division of the ray is hypertrophied

and

forming a heavy arm-trunk, which bears long,

stout, biserial ramules. The other half of the
division is atrophied, appearing as a biserial
structure similar in appearance and size to the
ramules borne by the arm-trunk. With increas-

KIRK: REVISION OF STEGANOCRINUS

263

ing age, the proximal portions of the arm-trunk
and its homologue progressively become in-
corporated in the cup wall as shown in Fig. 5,
copied from Wachsmuth and Springer (1897).
In such specimens the atrophied ramus can
easily be mistaken for a ramule borne by the
arm-trunk. Such an interpretation has actually
been made in the past.

The arm-trunk itself is uniserial, typically
bearing ramules on alternate sides on each sec-
ond brachial. The Brr are low. Occasionally
there appear to be two Brr between ramulifer-
ous Brr, but this is uncertain. The ramules are
long, stout, and biserial. They bear pinnules.
The base cf the ramule is set into the side of the
arm-trunk in such a way that it is difficult to
tell from which Br it really originates. Unfor-
tunately no specimens show the ventral surface
of the arm-trunk. However, in specimens where
a lateral view is to be had between the ramules,
it appears that there is no covering of heavy
plates comparable to that found in Stegano-
Crinus.

Meek and Worthen (1866, p. 197, fig. 10)
give a crude diagram of a portion of an arm-
trunk identified as S. sculptus Hall. The struc-
ture as shown in this diagram was repeated by
Wachsmuth and Springer (1881, pl. 17, fig. 3).
Later (1897, pl. 61, figs. le, f) a similar struc-
ture was illustrated. These figures are here
reproduced as line drawings (Figs. 1 and 2).
The original of these latter illustrations is in
the Springer collection. As a matter of fact, all
these figures were based on S. pentagonus. The
high, stout Brr, the heavy, spinous tegminal
plates, and the ramules borne on each brachial
clearly indicate this. The fragment illustrated
when placed side by side with an arm-trunk
attached to a specimen of S. pentagonus
matches perfectly.

The splendid specimen of C. sculptus figured
by Wachsmuth and Springer (1897, pl. 61, fig.
la) for the first time showed the true brachial
structures of this species. This specimen is dia-
grammatically copied, in part, as Fig. 3, from
Wachsmuth and Springer (1897). As told to
me by Mrs. Wachsmuth, this specimen was a
late find and was probably prepared and figured
without checking the figures made earlier. The
diagram given by Keyes (1894, pl. 20, fig. 6) of
S. sculptus seems actually to have been based
on this specimen. The Brr are incorrectly

264

shown, however, ramules being borne by each
brachial.

Relationships.—Cyrtocrinus and Stegano-
crinus show a similar modification of the rami
into arm-trunks bearing biserial ramules. This
is one of the numerous cases of parallel develop-
ment constantly to be found among the Crin-
oidea. In the general habit of the theca, which
is of great importance among the Camerata,
one suspects a quite diverse origin for the two
genera. Cyrtocrinus and Cactocrinus may well
have had a common ancestry, while one would
assume a similar relationship between Actino-
crinus and Steganocrinus. The most obvious
character that distinguishes Cyrtocrinus from
Steganocrinus is the brachial structure. How-
ever, in the general habit of the theca Cyrto-
crinus differs from Steganocrinus more widely,

for example, than the successive genera in the

Cactocrinus-Teleiocrinus-Strotocrinus series.
Genus Actinocrinus Miller

Miller and Gurley described the following
species as MSteganocrinus: albersi, benedicti,
blairt, griffitht, sharonensis, and spergenensis.
Bassler and Moodey (1943) have referred all
these species, with the exception of griffith, to
Actinocrinus. In the case of griffith, although
listed as Steganocrinus, they state: ‘? = Actino-
crinites scitulus.”’ All the species are properly
referable to Actinocrinus, but most of them
fall into synonymy as indicated below. Actino-
crinus sharonensis and A. spergenensis may be
valid species. There are a number of species of
Actinocrinus described from these higher hori-
zons, and only by comparing the types of all
the species can the proper standing of the vari-
ous names be established. Miller and Gurley
cite A. spergenensis as from the St. Louis. Ob-
viously, this is incorrect. However, the ‘‘Prob-
ably Burlington age’’ of Bassler and Moodey
goes too far on the other side. The crinoid itself
indicates an age of at least Borden or Harrods-
burg.

The remaining species described by Miller
and Gurley almost certainly fall under two of
the commonest and best-known species of the
upper Burlington, Actinocrinus scitulus Meek
and Worthen and A. multiradiatus Shumard:

Actinocrinus multiradiatus Shumard
Synonymy.—
Steganocrinus albersi Miller and Gurley, 1897,
p. 33, pl. 2, figs. 13-16.

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VOL. 33, NO. 9

Actinocrinus alberst (Miller and Gurley),
Bassler and Moodey, 1943, p. 267.

Steganocrinus blairt Miller and Gurley, 1897,
Pp: oo, Dl. 2, fies. 21 22.

Actinocrinus blair (Miller and Gurley), Bassler
and Moodey, 19438, p. 267..

Actinocrinus scitulus Meek and Worthen
Synonymy.—

Steganocrinus griffitht Miller and Gurley, 1897,
p. 34, pl. 2, figs. 17-20.

Actinocrinus griffitht (Miller and Gurley), n.
comb., this paper.

Steganocrinus sharonensits Miller and Gurley,
1897, p. 32, pl. 2, figs. 10-12.

Actinocrinus sharonensis (Miller and Gurley),
Bassler and Moodey, 1948, p. 274.

Actinocrinus eximius, n. name
Actinocrinus griffitht Wachsmuth and Springer,
1897, p. 568, pl. -52, fig. 7,> Miay Nios
Steganocrinus griffithi Miller and Gurley,
1897, p. 34, pl. 2, figs. 17-20, Jan. 25.)

It is unfortunate that Wachsmuth and
Springer’s name must be suppressed as a homo-
nym. Dr. Griffith was one of the group of en-
thusiastic amateurs to whom we owe so much
for our knowledge of the Burlington crinoids.
The species is rare, but it is a very distinet
form. As holotype I have chosen the specimen
figured by Wachsmuth and Springer (1897, pl.
52, fig. 7). There is no need to add to the de-
scription of Wachsmuth and Springer. Their
comment (1897, p. 579) that the “arm struc-
ture approaches the genus Steganocrinus’’ may,
however, be deleted.

This case and the invalid species noted above
are examples of a large number of similar
maleficent acts committed by Miller and
Gurley. The manuscript of the Camerate
Monograph was completed and transmitted for
publication in 1894. The fact was well known
to all. Miller and Gurley in their Bulletins of
the Illinois State Museum described every
specimen they could lay their hands on—good,
bad, and indifferent. As was well known to their
contemporaries, the main purpose was to fore-
stall the work of Wachsmuth and Springer.
Springer in his foreword in the first volume of
the Monograph puts the case very mildly.
Quite apart from ethical considerations, this
wholesale description of species has made for
a vast amount of confusion. A great many of
the new species described are invalid. The
drudgery involved in resolving the problems

Sepr. 15, 1943

resented is enormous and is a thankless task
at best.
LITERATURE CITED

Basser, R. S., and Moopnry, M. W. Bib-
liographic and faunal index of Paleozoic

pelmatozoan echinoderms. Geol. Soc.
Amer. Spec. Paper 45: i—vi, 1-734. 1948.

Hatt, James. Paleontology. Iowa Geol.
Surv. Rep. 1 (pt. 2): 473-724, pls. 1-29.
1858.

Keyes, C. R. Paleontology of Missourt. Part
1. Missouri Geol. Surv. 4: 89-271, pls.
11-33. 1894.

Meek, F. B., and Wortuen, A. H. Descrip-
tions of new species of Crinoidea and
Echinoidea from the Carboniferous rocks of
Illinois and other western States. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 12: 379-397.
1860.

Descriptions of invertebrates from the
Carboniferous system. Illinois Geol. Surv.
2 (sect. 2): 143-411, pls. 14-20, 23-32.
1866.

BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE

265

. Paleontology. Illinois Geol. Surv. 3
(pt. 2): 289-565, pls. 1-20. 1868.

MiuEr, 8. A., and Gurugy, W. F. E. New
and wnteresting species of Paleozoic fossils.
Illinois State Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 7: 1-
89, pls. 1-5. Dec. 5, 1895.

. New species of crinoids, cephalopods
and other Paleozoic fossils. Illinois State
Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 12: 1-59, index to
Bulls. 3-12, pp. 61-69, pls. 1-5. Jan. 25,
1897.

SHumMaARD, B. F. Paleontology and Appendix
B. 2d Ann. Rep. Missouri Geol. Surv.:
185-208, 213-220, pls. A-C. 1855.

WaACHSMUTH, CHARLES, and SPRINGER, FRANK.
Revision of the Paleocrinoidea. Pt. 2.
(With 2-page unnumbered index to pts. 1
and 2.) Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel-
phia 33: 177-414, pls. 17-19. Sept.—Nov.
1881.

The North American Crinoidea Cam-
erata. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 20 and
21: 1-837, 83 pls. 1897.

BOTAN Y.—Ten new American Asteraceae. 8. F. Buake, Bureau of Plant In-
dustry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering.

Nine new species, six of which are from
continental Mexico and one each from
Texas, Baja California, and Colombia, as
well as a new variety of Corethrogyne cali-
fornica from California, are described in
this paper. The single species from Colom-
bia, Tuberostylis axillaris, is of special in-
terest, belonging to a hitherto monotypic
genus which seems to be unique among
Asteraceae in its choice of habitat (tree
trunks or roots of mangroves and perhaps
other trees in saline tidal thickets). The oc-
currence of the two species now known,
which are very distinct in characters of
foliage and inflorescence, in the same re-
stricted area at Buenaventura, Colombia,
and apparently nowhere else, is of some
phytogeographic and evolutionary signifi-
cance.

Tuberostylis axillaris Blake, sp. nov.

Herba (?) epiphytica ubique glaberrima; fo-
lia ovata petiolata acuminata apice obtusa basi
acute cuneata integra margine undulata car-
nosa 3-nervia evenia; capitula in axillis ag-
gregata sessilia.

Herbaceous ?, scandent on tree trunks in

1 Received May 24, 1948.

tidal thickets; stem (or branch ?) simple, terete,
light green, pithy, 2 mm thick; leaves opposite;
internodes 2.5—-4.5 cm long; petioles 1 cm long,
sulcate above, connate at base; blades 4.5-6
em long, 2.2-2.6 cm wide ,dull green, sometimes
somewhat pustulate, 3-ribbed from base, the
lateral veins mostly invisible; heads about 14-
flowered, in axillary clusters of about 3-4, ses-
sile, the common peduncle 1-3 mm long, bear-
ing a few small spatulate herbaceous bracts;

-involucre strongly graduated, many-seriate,

7-9 mm high, the phyllaries appressed, firmly
stramineous, 3-vittate, 2- or 4-ribbed, from tri-
angular-ovate (outer) to linear (inner), all nar-
rowed to an obtusish to acutish apex; corollas
apparently whitish, cylindric without distin-
guishable tube, 4.2 mm long (tube 1 mm, throat
2.5 mm, teeth triangular, obtusish, 0.7 mm
long); achenes narrowly oblong, bluntly 3-5-
angled or -ribbed, greenish-white, epappose,
2.5-3 mm long, 0.8 mm wide.

Couomsta: Vine, scandent up tree trunk in
tidal thickets, Buenaventura Bay, Dept. El
Valle, 4 May 1939, E. P. Killip 35515 (type no.
1772228, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Tuberostylis rhizophorae Steetz, the only spe-
cies of the genus hitherto known, is at once dis-
tinguished by its spatulate-obovate, very ob-

266

tuse, few-crenate, l-nerved or weakly tripli-
nerved leaves and terminal panicle. It was de-
scribed from southern Darien (northwestern
Colombia), where it was found by Berthold
Seemann on the voyage of the Herald, growing
on the roots of mangrove (Rhizophora), and is
still a very rare plant in collections. Specimens
are in the U. S. National Herbarium from
Cotompsia: Dept. El Valle: On roots of Rhizo-
phora within tide limit, coast of Buenaventura,
Lehmann; mangrove swamp along Rio Dagua,
Buenaventura, 7-9 May 1922, Killip 5335, 13
April 1939, Killip 34958.

The genus is, so far as I know, unique in the
family in its choice of habitat (on tree trunks
or roots in saline tidal thickets), and the oc-
currence of its two very distinct species in the
same locality is of particular interest. The type
sheet bears two stems or branches about a foot
long and in old fruit, floriferous in practically
all the axils but quite destitute of rootlets.

Brickellia nutanticeps Blake, nom. nov.

Eupatorium nutans H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp.
4: 105. 1820.

Brickellia nutans Robinson, Mem. Gray Herb.
1: 85. 1917. Not B. nutans Robins. &
Greenm. 1895.

The name Brickellia nutans is not available
for this species, having been independently
proposed by Robinson & Greenman in 1895 for
a supposedly new species now considered by
Robinson identical with the slightly earlier
published B. orizabaensis Klatt. The present
provision in the International Rules requiring
the rejection of later homonyms was not in
force when Robinson’s Monograph of Brickellia
was written.

Gutierrezia longipappa Blake, sp. nov.

Suffruticosa ca. 5 dm alta glutinosa hirtella
erecte ramosa foliosa; folia linearia integerrima
3-nervia punctata ca. 5 cm longa 2 mm lata in
axillis saepe prolifera; capitula minima 2-flora
1-radiata numerosissima subsessilia in apicibus
ramorum et ramulorum arcte conferta; involu-
cri cylindrici 4 mm alti gradati phyllaria
straminea apice viridia; flores 2,1 femineus ligu-
latus fertilis, 1 hermaphroditus sterilis ovario
abortivo, rarissime ambo hermaphroditi;
achenium fl. fem. paene glabrum, pappo e
paleis 7-8 liberis achenio longioribus sistente;
pappus fl. hermaph. e paleis 10 liberis paene
3 mm longis sistens.

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VOL. 33, NO. 9

Stem shrubby below, with grayish fissured
bark, glabrate, about 6 mm thick; branches
erect, whitish below, then straw-color, green
above, striate-angled, rather sparsely hirtel-
lous, denudate below; leaves alternate, usually
with fascicles or short branches in their axils;
internodes mostly 5-7 mm long; blades of
larger leaves 4.5-6 cm long, 1.8—2.5 mm wide,
acutish, callous-pointed, sessile, flat, sparsely
hispidulous, densely impressed-punctate, 3-
nerved, the midrib prominent beneath, im-
pressed above, the lateral pair much weaker,
impressed beneath, impressed or scarcely evi-
dent above; individual flower clusters 1.5-2.5
cm wide, flattish or rounded, the whole forming
a flattish panicle about 2 dm wide; heads
(moistened) 4.5-5 mm long (excluding style-
branches), about 1.8 mm thick, compressed,
mostly sessile in clusters of 2—5 at tips of short
branchlets, a few sometimes solitary and on
pedicels 1 mm long; phyllaries few (7), ap-
pressed, the outermost linear, obtuse, 1 mm
long, thick-herbaceous, the next ovate or ob-
long, obtuse, thick-herbaceous in middle above
and with scarious margin, the inmost (2) oblong,
obtuse, l-nerved, straw-color, scarious with
short blunt green tip; receptacle prolonged into
a triangular acute or acuminate point about
0.5 mm long; ray yellow, 4.2—4.7 mm long (tube
2-2.5 mm, lamina oval, emarginate or ob-
scurely 3-denticulate, 3-4-nerved, 2.3 mm
long); disk corolla yellow, glabrous, 4.2—4.5 mm
long (tube 0.8-1.1 mm, throat subcylindrie to
funnelform, 2.3-2.5 mm, teeth 5, narrowly tri-
angular, recurved, somewhat thickened at tip,
0.7-0.8 mm long); achene oblong or oblong-
obovoid, very sparsely erect-pilose, 5-nerved,
1.2 mm long, the pappus of 7-8 free linear ob-
long 1-seriate obtuse to acute somewhat une-
qual paleae 1-1.8 mm long; pappus of her-
maphrodite flower sub-2-seriate, of 10 subequal
linear-oblong acuminate paleae 2.8-3 mm long;
style branches of hermaphrodite flower linear,
acuminate, hispidulous on back throughout,
without stigmatic lines.

Texas: 12 miles east of Marfa, Presidio
County, 19 Oct. 1937, V. L. Cory 26335 (type
no. 151924, herb. U. 8S. Nat. Arboretum); San-
derson, Terrell County, 29 Sept. 1911, H. O.
Wooton (U.S. Nat. Herb.).

The type specimen was sent by Mr. Cory
under the name Selloa glutinosa Spreng. (Gym-

Smpr. 15, 1943

nosperma glutinosum Less.), to which it bears a
remarkably close resemblance, although the
leaves of that plant are somewhat broader and
3-ribbed; but in Selloa glutinosa the heads are
about 9-14-flowered, the rays are much
smaller, the disk flowers are fertile, the achenes
are densely puberulent, and the pappus is
wanting. Gutierrezia longipappa is distinguished
from most species of its genus by its 2-flowered
heads, and from all known to me by its sub-
glabrous achenes and very long pappus. Woo-
ton’s specimen, mounted with one of Selloa
glutinosa, agrees closely with the type in essen-
tial characters but has a slightly longer ray
(lamina elliptic, 3 mm long) and a somewhat
shorter pappus (2 mm) in the hermaphrodite
flower; the plant is more conspicuously glutin-
ous and the leaves are narrower (1.5 mm) with
the lateral pair of veins only obscurely indi-
cated.

Corethrogyne californica DC. var. lyonii
Blake, var. nov.

Involucri 5-6-seriati subaequalis vel paullum
gradati 1.2-1.8 em alti phyllaria lineari-ob-
longa v. paullum oblanceolata maxima ex parte
(exteriora omnino) herbacea laxa v. squarrosa.

Stems 12-20 cm long, decumbent or ascend-
ing, numerous, densely white-tomentose like
the leaves; leaves obovate, 3—4.5 cm long in-
- cluding petiole, 0.8—1.5 cm wide, subentire to
crenate-serrate above; peduncles terminal, soli-
tary, l-headed, green and merely stipitate-
glandular, 2—-5.5 cm long, bearing 2 or 3 glabres-
cent bracts; phyllaries 2-2.5 mm wide, often
slightly broadened upwardly, densely stipitate-
glandular and thinly pubescent, the outer
herbaceous throughout, the middle ones with
subscarious margin below, the inmost with
chartaceous base and short green tip.

CALIFORNIA: Open slope, Cathedral Peak,
southwest corner of sec. 22, T. 115S., R. 7 E.,
Merced County, altitude 915 meters (3,000
feet), 4 June 1941, Gregory S. Lyon 1572 (type
no. 154588, U. 8. Nat. Arb.; dupl. herb.
Univ. Calif.); Twin Peak, NW3 sec. 36, T. 11
8., R. 7 E., Merced County, altitude 610 meters
(2,000 feet), 12 May 1939, Lyon 1310 (herb.
U.S. Nat. Arboretum, herb. Univ. California).

Although strikingly different from the com-
mon coastal form in its large and loose herba-
ceous involucre, this plant cannot be consid-
ered more than a variety. The two collections

BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE

267

cited come from the Inner South Coast Ranges.
Another more ample collection from the same
region (Lyon 1428), open rocky slope, Laveaga
Peak, SW} sec. 14, T.12S., R. 7 E., San Benito
County, alt. 915 meters, 2 June 1940) has a
shorter, strongly graduated involucre with the
3-4 outer series of phyllaries herbaceous only
above, and must be considered an intermediate
nearer to the typical form. The variety is
named for the collector, a former student of
Prof. H. L. Mason and Prof. Lincoln Con-
stance, who has made extensive collections in
the little-known Inner South Coast Ranges of
San Benito, Merced, and Fresno Counties,
California.

Archibaccharis peninsularis Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex laxus parum ramosus foliosus; caulis
tenuis striatus purpureo-brunneus subgla-
bratus, rami viridescentes dense hispiduli; folia
ovalia v. obovata obtusa v. acutiuscula apicu-
lata basi cuneata in petiolum folio multiplo
breviorem anguste decurrentia utroquelatere
grosse 1-3-dentata pergamentacea supra laete
viridia subtus paullo pallidiora utrinque sparse
pilis conicis basi subtuberculatis hispidula mar-
gine hispidulo-ciliolata; capitula staminea par-
va 24-flora numerosa apice ramorum paniculata
tenuiter pedicellata folia paullum superantia;
involucri hemispherici 3 mm alti ca. 4-seriati
gradati phyllaria oblonga v. oblongo-ovata
obtusa 1-vittata scarioso-marginata supra cili-
ata; corollae purpureae, dentibus fauce brevis-
sima multiplo longioribus; achenia compressa
2-nervia erecto-hirsuta; pappus 1-seriatus, setis
hispidulis ad apicem incrassatic et barbellatis.

“Tow reclining bush with stems 1-1.5 m
long”; stem 2.5 mm thick, striate and subangu-
late by dequrrent lines from the leaf-bases;
branches few, simple except for a subterminal
branch, about 30 cm long or less, greenish,
densely cinereous-hispidulous with short sev-
eral-celled subconic spreading white hairs;
leaves alternate; internodes mostly 4-15 mm
long; petiole 3-9 mm long, narrowly margined
nearly or quite to base, densely hispidulous;
blade 2.5—4 cm long, 1.3-2.5 cm wide, plane,
coarsely few-toothed mostly above the middle
(teeth 1-2 mm high, acute or obtuse, callous-
apiculate), feather-veined (lateral veins 3-4
pairs, prominulous on both sides, the secondar-
ies inconspicuous), roughish especially beneath,
the hairs denser along costa beneath; panicle

268

about 17—40-headed, 4—6 cm wide, flattish or
somewhat convex, surpassing the leaves by 1-2
em, pubescent like the stem, the bracts small,
lanceolate, the pedicels 2-6 mm long; heads
(moistened) 5 mm high, 3.5 mm thick; phyl-
laries glabrous dorsally, the vitta greenish
above; receptacle naked; corollas glabrous ex-
cept for a few clavellate hairs at base of throat,
3.5 mm long (tube whitish, 1.7 mm, throat
campanulate, 0.3 mm, teeth purple, recurving,
lanceolate, 1.5 mm long); achenes oblong-obo-
vate, 1 mm long, whitish, erect-hirsute with
bidenticulate hairs; pappus bristles about 30,
slender, white 2.8 mm long; style branches 1
mm long, hispidulous on back above, with ob-
tuse appendages and no evident stigmatic lines.

Baga CALIFORNIA: In shade in small canyon,
on rocky talus slopes under oaks, Arroyo
Hondo, Sierra Giganta (between La Paz and
Loreto), 13 Dec. 1938, H. S. Gentry 4120 (type
no. 263147, Dudley Herb.; photograph and
fragments, herb. U. S. Nat. Arboretum).

This interesting plant, sent me for study by
Mrs. Roxanna S. Ferris, is referred to Archi-
baccharis with some doubt, since only the
staminate plant is known. In general habit and
in the comparatively thin leaves it agrees better
with that genus than with Baccharis, the only
other genus to which it could be referred, and
in any case it is quite distinct from any known
species of either group. The genus Archibac-
charts has not previously been reported from
Baja California. The species appears to be
nearest Archibaccharis serratifolia (H.B.K.)
Blake, of Mexico proper, a plant with ovate or
lance-ovate, sharply acute or acuminate, regu-
larly serrate or serrulate, much more densely
pubescent leaves.

Gnaphalium panniforme Blake, nom. nov.

Gnaphalium pannosum Gray, Proc. Amer.
Acad. 19: 3. 1883. Not G. pannosum (DC.)
Sch. Bip. Bot. Zeit. 3: 172. 1845.

This Mexican species is apparently still
known only from the original collections by
Schaffner (no. 227) and Parry & Palmer (no.
420) in the mountains of San Luis Potosi.

Heliopsis parviceps Blake, sp. nov.

Annua tenuissima superne pauciramosa re-
mote foliata, caule bifariam puberulo; folia
minuscula ovata acuminata basi late cuneata v.
subcordata tenuia serrata triplinervia utrinque

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VOL. 33, NO. 9

hirsutula; capitula pro genere minima tenuissi-
me pedunculata omnino purpurea, radiis inter-
dum supra brunneoflavescentibus exceptis; in- -
volucri 2-seriati subaequalis ca. 3.5 mm longi
phyllaria oblonga v. late ovata; radii 4-5 min-
imi; achenia radii obovoidea corticata parum
tuberculata epapposa, disci oblonga epapposa.

Very slender annual, about 4 dm high, with
about 2 elongate branches above, these them-
selves often with 2 or-3 branches at apex; stem
greenish white, about 1.5 mm thick, striatulate;
leaves below middle of stem only 2-3 pairs,
small (blades 2 cm long, 1.2 cm wide), mostly
fallen at flowering time, separated by long in-
ternodes; leaves near middle of stem 2-3 pairs,
with short internodes (mostly 7-28 mm long),
their petioles very slender, 8-15 mm long, flat-
tened above, pilosulous chiefly on margin, their
blades ovate, 3-4 cm long, 1.2-1.7 cm wide,
green and evenly but not densely antrorse-hir-
sutulous on both sides with subtuberculate-
based hairs; branches when well developed with

.a long naked internode up to 18 cm long, then

bearing 1-2 pairs of rather crowded narrower

- leaves and 2-3 long-peduncled heads, the pe-

duncles often with a pair of leaves and an unde-
veloped head above the middle; heads about 11
mm wide (moistened), about 3-10 per stem,
solitary and terminal on long and very slender
bifariously puberulous peduncles 2.5-8.5 em
long; disk at maturity conical, 6-8 mm high,
5 mm thick; involucre 2-seriate, subequal, 3—- —
3.8 mm high, the phyllaries few (ca. 12), ap-
pressed, the outer oblong, obtuse, about 1.5
mm wide, the inner broader, broadly ovate, ob-
tuse, all sparsely puberulous, ciliolate, at first
subindurate and pale below, with 3 green vittae
and shorter subherbaceous tip, at maturity
strongly suffused with purple throughout; rays
4—5, pistillate, fertile, spreading, deep purple on
both sides or sometimes dull brownish yellow
above, finely papillate on both faces, jointed to
the achene and detachable from it, their mar-
gins somewhat inflexed for about 0.5 mm above
base but the proper tube a mere ring only 0.2
mm long, the lamina suborbicular, thickish,
3.2-3.5 mm long and wide, bluntly 3-toothed,
10-12-nerved (2 of the nerves stronger), hispi-
dulous on the ringlike base and on the nerves
dorsally; disk corollas deep purple, glabrous,
3 mm long (tube 0.4 mm, throat 2 mm, not
wider than tube for 0.6 mm, then slender-

Serr. 15, 1943

campanulate, teeth ovate, acute, 0.6 mm long);
pales rather thin, 3.6-4.2 mm long, purple
above, glabrous, keeled for two-thirds their
length or more from base, broadly rounded or
subtruncate and bluntly mucronulate; ray
achenes broadly obovoid, corticate with a thick
papillate and somewhat tuberculate, fleshy,
detergible outer layer, sublenticular, about
3.6 mm long, 2.5 mm wide, rounded on outer
face, with a single broad rib on inner face,
greenish fuscous, sparsely and obscurely pu-
berulous, with narrow thick margin, this irregu-
larly denticulate or tuberculate and with 2
larger teeth toward apex; disk achenes (imma-
ture) oblong, 1 mm long, glabrous, somewhat
thickened, truncate, epappose; style branches
hispidulous toward apex, with subdeltoid short-
cuspidate hispidulous appendages.

Mexico: Along Cuernavaca-Taxco Road,
about 10 miles from Taxco, Guerrero, alt. 1675
meters, 19 Aug. 1935, L. H. MacDaniels 128
(type no. 837092, herb. Field Mus.; photo-
graph and fragments, herb. U. 8. Nat. Arbore-
tum).

This plant is described as a Heliopsis with
some hesitation. The ray corollas, set in a con-
cavity at apex of achene, definitely jointed tc it,
and rather readily detachable, are out of place
in the genus and at odds with the definition of
the subtribe to which Heliopsis belongs. Its
closest relationship, nevertheless, seems to be
with that genus, and it is referred there for the
present. The species is readily distinguished by
its tiny purple heads.

Zexmenia appressipila Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex ramosus; caulis tenuis dense strigil-
losus; folia lanceolata attenuata falcata basi
acute cuneata breviter petiolata triplinervia in-
conspicue serrulata firme herbacea utrinque
viridia et scabriuscula supra ubique sed non
dense strigosa pilis basi lepidotis non tubercula-
tis et strigillosa subtus ubique non dense strigosa
et sessili-glandulosa glandulis albidis; capitula
solitaria terminalia pedunculata radiata aurea
ca. 5 cm lata; involucri 1.2-1.3 cm alti cam-
panulati ca. 4-seriati phyllaria exteriora stri-
gosa basi ovata indurata pallida appendice
longiore herbacea laxa lanceolata, interiora
multo breviora ovalia pallida abrupte breviter-
‘que herbaceo-appendiculata, intima exappen-
diculata; achenia neque alata neque marginata,

BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE

269

ea disci pappo l-aristato et squamellato donata.

Slender shrub, opposite-branched, the stem
grayish brown, about 3 mm thick, subterete;
internodes mostly 3—5.5 cm long; petioles 4-6
mm long, obscurely margined, strigillose and on
margin strigose, not ciliate; blades 9-11 cm
long, 2.3—2.6 cm wide, usually strongly falcate,
obscurely serrulate (teeth about 6-8 pairs,
about 0.3 mm high, 4-8 mm apart, blunt, cal-
lous), prominulous-reticulate beneath and with
a pair of strong lateral veins arising about 1 cm
above base of leaf, slightly shining on both
sides, deep green above, slightly lighter green
beneath; peduncles slender, densely strigillose,
3-4 em long, shorter than the upper leaves; disk
1.5-(fruit)-1.2 em high, 1 em thick; outer phyl-
laries 12-13 mm long, with pale indurated ovate
base 3-4 mm wide, densely strigillose with
lepidote-based hairs, and longer, lanceolate,
acuminate, loosely spreading, sparsely strigil-
lose tip 2.5-3 mm wide, the next series equal
in length, similar but broader with subscarious-
margined oval-oblong base and relatively
shorter, more abrupt herbaceous tip, the next
series much shorter, mostly subscarious with
short narrow abrupt herbaceous tip, strigose
toward tip, the inmost entirely subscarious,
obtuse, obscurely ciliolate; rays 9 or more,
golden yellow, elliptic-oblong, the tube about
2 mm, the lamina about 2—2.5 cm long, 6 mm
wide; disk corollas golden yellow, essentially
glabrous, 6.5 mm long (tube 1.5 mm, throat
4 mm, teeth 1 mm); pales narrow, 1—-toothed
on each side, acuminate, purplish-tipped, mi-
nutely hispidulous-ciliolate; ray achenes nar-
rowly obovate, 5 mm long, 1.3 mm wide, 3-
angled, not winged or margined, finely his-
pidulous, their pappus of 3 fragile awns (the
2 outer 1.5-1.8 mm, the inner 4 mm long) and
about 5 squamellae about 0.5 mm long, these
somewhat united with the awns at base; disk
achenes nearly linear, blackish, 5—5.5 mm long,
1 mm wide, compressed, 1-ribbed on each face,
4-angled, not winged or margined, sparsely
hispidulous, their pappus of a single slender
awn 5 mm long and about 5-6 obtuse hispid-
ciliate squamellae up to 1 mm long and united
at base.

Mexico: In pineland, Mount Ovando, Chi-
apas, 14-18 Noy. 1939, E. Matuda 3954 (type
no. 151925, herb. U. S. Nat. Arboretum).

Distinguished by its comparatively narrow,

270

long-acuminate, short-petioled leaves, lepidote-
strigose and strigillose above and strigose be-
neath (the hairs not spreading even when the
leaves are moistened), its solitary, rather short-
peduncled heads with abruptly herbaceous,
spreading phyllary tips, and its wingless and,
marginless achenes. The species is apparently
nearest Zexmenia aurantiaca Klatt, which has
ovate leaves with non-appressed pubescence.
The descriptions of Z. monocephala (DC.)
Heynh. and Z. strigosa (DC.) Sch. Bip. some-
what suggest this plant, but the types of both
species, which I examined and photographed in
1925, are entirely different from it.

Verbesina phyllolepis Blake, sp. nov.

Frutex ?; caulis strigillosus anguste alatus;
folia lanceolata utroque acuminata sessilia vix
auriculata decurrentia supra partem inferi-
orem integram serrulata supra saturate viridia
tactu laevia sparse strigillosa subtus pallidius
viridia densius strigillosa penninervia; capitula
in apicibus ramorum 1-3 ca. 4 cm lata aurea
radiata breviter pendulata; involucri ca. 4-
seriati gradati ca. 4 mm alti phyllaria oblonga
subindurata pallida, appendice longiore herba-
cea lineari-elliptica v. subspathulata obtusa
apice callosa late patente donata; radii ca. 20
lamina elliptico-oblonga ca. 17 mm longa 4.5
mm lata.

Shrubby ?, sparsely branched above; stems
subterete, brownish, striate, rather densely
strigilJose, winged throughout (only upper part
seen) by the decurrent leaf bases, 3 mm thick,
the wings in pairs from each petiole-base,
herbaceous becoming dry, entire, somewhat
veiny, 1-2 mm wide; internodes mostly 7-15
mm long; leaf blades 8-10.5 cm long, 1.5-
2.5 cm wide, herbaceous, serrulate above the
entire lower third (teeth 4-10 on each side,
obtusely callous-tipped, about 1 mm high, 4-12
mm apart), the costa whitish, prominent be-
neath, rounded, the chief lateral veins 5-7 pairs,
curved, prominulous beneath; heads solitary at
tip and in the uppermost axils, the peduncles
0.5-2 cm long, winged like the stem; involucre
(excluding the appendages) about 4 mm high,
puberulous, the herbaceous appendages about
5-7 mm long, 1-1.5 mm wide, spreading or de-
flexed; rays pistillate; disk corollas numerous,
golden, glabrous except for the sparsely pu-
bescent tube, 4.8 mm long (tube 1.1 mm, throat
2.5 mm, teeth ovate, 0.7 mm long); pales yel-

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VOL. 33, NO. 9

lowish green, pubescent on the narrow keel,
acute, 5 mm long, with erect or in youth some-
what inflexed tip; achenes (very immature)
obovate, hispidulous above and on the very
narrow wings, 2.3 mm long; awns 2, hispidu-
lous, 1.5-1.8 mm long.

Mexico: In pineland, Mount Ovando, Chi-
apas, 14-18 Nov. 1939, #. Matuda 3953 (type,
Herb. Univ. Michigan; photograph and frag-
ments, herb. U. 8. Nat. Arboretum).

A member of the section Verbesinaria, re-
lated to V. nerizfolia Hemsl. and less closely to
V. liebmannii Sch. Bip., but distinguished by
the conspicuous spreading or reflexed herba-
ceous appendages of the phyllaries. The leaves
are alternate.

Tridax accedens Blake, sp. nov.

Herba ramosa 45 dm alta, basi invisa; caulis
patenti-glandulari-pilosus; folia opposita ovata
bene petiolata acuta basi subtruncata pauci-
serrata sparse hirsuto-pilosa; capitula nu-
merosa mediocria discoidea cymoso-paniculata,
pedicellis capitulo saepius multiplo longioribus;
involucri i-seriati ca. 3.5 mm alti phyllaria
ovali-oblonga apice rotundata subglabra viri-
descentia margine scariosa; corollae albae;
achenia 5-costata dense pilosula; pappus ca. 20-
squamellatus, squamellis flor. exteriorum la-
cerato-fimbriatis ca. 0.4 mm longis, eis flor.
interiorum fimbriatis ca. 1 mm longis.

Stem ‘5 dm high,” about 3.5 mm thick, with
numerous erectish branches above, green, pur-
plish-tinged, subterete, somewhat sulcate be-
low, rather sparsely spreading-pilose with
several-celled hairs 1-1.56 mm long mostly
tipped with brownish glands, the branches and
pedicels also puberulent with minute several-
celled mostly incurved glandless hairs; leaves
opposite, much shorter than the internodes;
petioles of larger leaves 2.8 cm long, narrowly
margined above, pilose with gland-tipped hairs;
blades of larger leaves 5 cm long, 4 cm wide,
subtruncate at base and then shortly cuneate-
decurrent into the petiole, remotely repand-
serrate with 5-6 pairs of low bluntish teeth,
herbaceous, green on both sides, above sparsely
hirsute-pilose with subtuberculate-based hairs,
beneath more sparsely hirsute-pilose chiefly
along the veins, triplinerved about 4 mm above
the base; panicle about 30 cm long, 19 cm
wide, nearly naked, its lowest branches sub-
tended by reduced leaves, the remaining bracts

Smpr. 15, 1943

linear-lanceolate or narrowly triangular, 3-10
mm long; pedicels mostly 1-3.5 cm long;
heads campanulate, about 22-flowered, about
5 mm high, 7 mm thick (as pressed) ; phyllaries
5, 1-seriate, all subtending flowers, sometimes
with a single small additional sterile outer one,
greenish but not at all herbaceous, with narrow
whitish scarious margin, usually brownish at
apex, 6-8-vittate, obscurely ciliolate above,
glabrous on back; receptacle low-conical, the
pales readily deciduous; corollas white, densely
hirsutulous on tube, sparsely so on some of the
nerves and on teeth, 3.5-3.8 mm long (tube 1
mm, throat cylindric-oblong, about 1.5 mm in
outer corollas, 1.8 mm in central flowers, teeth
5, broadly triangular, 1.2 mm long in outer
corollas, 0.8 mm in central corollas); pales ob-
long, rounded, membranous, with greenish cen-
ter and about equally broad hyaline margin,
3-5-vittate, ciliolate at apex, otherwise gla-
brous, not strongly conduplicate, 2.8 mm long;
achenes of outer flowers obovoid, somewhat
compressed, densely and shortly silky-pilose
(the hairs spreading when wet), 5-ribbed (1-
ribbed on inner face, 2-ribbed on outer, the ribs
on outer face blackish, glabrous, and conspicu-
ous), 2 mm long, their pappus persistent, of
about 20 lanceolate lacerate-fimbriate squamel-
lae, united at base, about 0.4 mm long; central
achenes obpyramidal, with 5 black glabrous
ribs, densely short-pilose (the hairs spreading
when wet), 1.8 mm long, their pappus of about
20 alternately somewhat unequal oblong obtuse
fimbriate squamellae 0.8—1 mm long, united at
base in a thick ring; intermediate fruits with
intermediate characters.

Mexico: In llano, Coalcoman, Dist. of Coal-
coman, Michoac4n, alt. 1,000 meters, 9 Jan.
1939, G. B. Hinton 12884 (type no. 1748961,
U.S. Nat. Herb.); same locality, 31 Dec. 1938,
Hinton 12850 (U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Tridax dubia Rose, the only close relative of
this species, is readily distinguished by its
densely pubescent involucre, essentially gla-
brous or merely puberulent achenes, and short
yellow rays.

Perezia scaposa Blake, sp. nov.

Herba perennis scaposa 60 cm alta, caudice
crasso longe brunnescenti-piloso; folia rosulata
magna oblonga v. oblongo-obovata lyrato-
pinnatifida membranacea infra in costa sparse
et decidue pilosa segmento terminali magno

BLAKE: NEW AMERICAN ASTERACEAE

271

ovato acuto repando-dentato segmentis later-
alibus 3—4-jugis multo minoribus deorsum de-
crescentibus oblongis acutis repando-dentatis,
petiolo brevi anguste alato; scapi 3 tenues parce
pilosi remote bracteati bracteis herbaceis sub-
ulatis erectis paucidentatis 8-10 mm longis
paniculam laxam oblongam multicapitatam
subaequantes, pedicellis capillaribus minute
bracteatis 1-2 cm longis; capitula parva 5-7-
flora, in fructu (corollis delapsis) 8-10 mm
longa; involucri 6 mm alti valde gradati ca. 5-
seriati phyllaria exteriora parva ovata v. ob-
longo-ovata 1—2.5 mm longa acuta viridescentia
ciliolata dorso glabra, media lanceolato-ob-
longa, intima linearia acuta v. obtusa apicu-
lata; achaenia minute hispidula 4.5 mm longa;
pappus stramineus 5 mm longus.

Rootstock about 4 em long, 1 em thick, hori-
zontal, bearing fibrous roots; scapes 1-1.5 mm
thick at base; leaves all basal, about 7, 15-27
em long (including the short narrowly winged
petiole, this 1.5-5 cm long), 6-12.5 cm wide,
dark green, lightly prominulous-reticulate on
both sides, essentially glabrous above, beneath
with some loose deciduous pilosity along the
midrib and veins and sparse appressed hairs on
the surface; panicles about 30 cm long, 9-12
em wide, thinly pilosulous, the branches di-
verging at an angle of about 30—45°, the bracts
of the pedicels lanceolate or subulate, ap-
pressed, about 1 mm long; outer phyllaries pass-
ing into the bracts at apex of pedicels, 1 mm
wide or less, acute and shortly apiculate, the
middle ones about 1.5 mm wide, the inmost
acute or obtuse, short-apiculate, 1 mm wide,
all slightly ciliolate toward apex, glabrous on
back; receptacle fimbrillate; corolla 2-lipped, 7
mm long, glabrous, the outer lip oval, 3 mm
long, 3-dentate, the inner 2-parted; achene
fusiform, olive-green, 4-4.8 mm long, very
shortly hispidulous with partly subglandular-
tipped hairs; pappus soft.

Mexico: On cliff, Aquila, Dist. Coalcoman,
Michoacan, alt. 250 meters, 24 March 1941,
G. B. Hinton 15838 (type no. 1820864, U. 8.
Nat. Herb.).

This species is clearly distinct from any of
the 5 scapose species described from Mexico
and Central America in Bacigalupi’s revision”
of the North American species of the genus. Its
closest ally is apparently P. nudiuscula Robin-

2 Contr. Gray Herb., no. 97. 1931.

272

son, still known only from the original collec-
tion from Nayarit (Tepic), which lacks the
basal leaves. In Perezia nudiuscula the bracts
of the scape are much larger (2—4 cm long), the
heads 12-20-flowered and decidedly larger (in-
volucre 8-11 mm high), and the pappus bright
white.

Perezia simulata Blake, sp. nov.

Herba 1 m alta; caulis tenuis puberulus gla-
bratus subflexuosus; folia oblongo-ovata ma-
juscula chartacea acuminata sessilia amplexi-
caulia repando-denticulata dentibus spinulosis
utrinque reticulato-venulosa supra in venis pu-
berula subtus in venis et venulis puberula;
capitula mediocria 5-flora in axillis foliorum
capitato-congesta; pedicelli breves dense squa-
mosi squamis triangulari-subulatis subpungen-
tibus in phyllaria involucri transeuntibus; in-
volucri anguste obconici valde gradati ca. 11
mm alti phyllaria lineari-lanceolata longe
acuminata subpungentia erecta straminea gla-
bra; corollae bilabiatae; achenia subrostrata
dense glandulosa et minute hispidula.

Stem very slender, subterete, multistriate,
whitish tinged with purple-brown, puberulous
with crisped spreading essentially eglandular
hairs, becoming for the most part completely
glabrate, with some branches above, these
shorter than the leaves; leaves 13-15 cm long,
about 6.5 em wide, plane, spinulose-denticulate
throughout, feather-veined (lateral veins about
6-8 pairs), strongly amplexicaul with rounded
auricles or the smaller upper ones merely
sessile, above puberulous with eglandular
hairs on the costa and chief veins, otherwise
nearly glabrous, beneath densely puberulous or
pilosulous with spreading several-celled eglan-

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new wood quail
FRIEDMANN, U. 8. National Museum.

Recent study of a large series of wood
quail has revealed that the form hitherto
known as Dendrortyx macroura griserpectus
Nelson is in reality a composite of two sep-
arable subspecific entities. Hellmayr and
Conover (Cat. Birds Amer., pt. 1, no. 1:
225-226. 1942) give the range of griseipectus

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

the Smithsonian Institution. Received July 1,
~ 1943,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

dular hairs on all the veins and veinlets and
sparsely on surface, subsessile-glandular on sur-
face; heads in capitate clusters of about 8-11
in axils of stem and branch leaves, the clusters
about 2 cm high, 3-4 cm wide (as pressed), the
short pedicels (about 5 mm long) completely
concealed by the numerous triangular-subulate
long-acuminate subpungent stramineous bracts,
these minutely ciliolate, otherwise glabrous,
about 3-5 mm long, passing into the phyllaries;
proper involucre slenderly obconic, about 11
mm high, 3 mm thick (moistened), its phyl-
laries rather few (about 7), linear-lanceolate,
long-acuminate into subpungent straight tips,
greenish, narrowly pale-margined, stramineous,
minutely ciliolate, otherwise glabrous, 1.2-1.5
mm wide; corollas ‘“‘purple,’’ minutely puberu-
lous outside with subcapitate hairs, 11 mm
long, the outer lip 4.8 mm long, 3-dentate, 4-
nerved, the inner lip divided to base into 2
linear acute lobes 4.8 mm long; achenes slender,
subrostrate, densely glandular and minutely
hispidulous, 6 mm long; pappus white, 9 mm
long.

Mexico: In woods, Coalcoman, Dist. of
Coalcoman, Michoacan, alt. 1000 meters, 15
March 1939, G. B. Hinton 13654 (type no.
1748962, U.S. Nat. Herb.).

Closely similar in habit and most characters
to Perezia dugesit Gray but with much narrower
and more gradually acuminate phyllaries. In
none of the specimens of P. dugesii examined
are the squamose bracts of the pedicels so
numerous or so narrow.

Stephanomeria cinerea Blake, comb. nov.

Ptiloria cinerea Blake, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash-
ington 35: 177. 1922.

of the genus Dendrortyx.! HERBERT

-as comprising only ‘“‘two widely separated

localities, Huitzilac, Morelos, and San Se-
basti4n (northwest of Mascota), Jalisco,
Mexico,” and further state that “although
San Sebastian, Jalisco, is widely separated
from Huitzilac, Morelos, and the range of
D. m. striatus in Michoacan would seem to
intervene somewhat, the Jalisco specimens
are so nearly like grisezpectus from Morelos
and so different from striatus that no other

SHprT. 15, 1943

way is left than to place them in the same

-race.’’ I find, on the contrary, that the birds
of the two localities are as separable from
each other as are the other recognized (and
valid) races of the species. The Huitzilac,
Morelos, birds, being topotypical grisezpec-
tus, retain that name, while for the San
Sebastian, Jalisco, specimens I propose the
name—

Dendrortyx macroura diversus, n. subsp.

Type—vU. S. N..M. (Biol. Surv. Coll.)
155936, o&, San Sebastian, Jalisco, Mexico,
collected March 28, 1897, by E. W. Nelson and
E. A. Goldman.

Subspecific characters—Similar to D. m.
grisetpectus Nelson but differing in having the

SCHULTZ: CHARACINID FISHES FROM SOUTH AMERICA

273

lower back, rump, and upper tail coverts more
olive-brown and with no or little black barring;
in having the flanks and thighs more olive-
brown, less barred; and in having the under
tail coverts more brownish, less blackish, with
less contrast between the dark areas and the
whitish tips.

Range—Known only from northwestern
Jalisco (Mascota and San Sebastian).

Measurements.—4 of, including the type—
wing 153-161 (156); tail 138-149 (144.5);
culmen from the base 20.6—20.8 (20.65) ; tarsus
50-53 (51.1); middle toe without claw 39.7—
AN~* (40.2 mm), 3 9—wing 141-151 (146);
vail 19-141 (128.7); culmen from base 19.5—
20.8 (20.3); tarsus 47—47.5 (47.2); middle toe
without claw 38-38.9 (38.3 mm).

ICHTHYOLOGY.—Two new characind fishes from South America of the genus

- Gilbertolus Exgenmann.'

In recent studies of some characinid fishes
that I collected in the Maracaibo Basin of
Venezuela, it was observed that the forms
of Gilbertolus inhabiting the Rio Atrato and
the Rio Magdalena of Colombia and the
Maracaibo Basin differed from each other
so much that it was decided to describe two
of them as new subspecies. The form from
the Magdalena River was described by
Steindachner in 1878.

The members of this genus seem to occur
most frequently in the quiet waters of
swampy areas and less frequently in the
quieter pools of the rivers. They are no-
where abundant, however, and few speci-
mens are preserved in museums.

Genus Gilbertolus Eigenmann

Gilbertella Eigenmann, Smithsonian Mise. Coll.
45: 147. 1903 (Genotype: Anacyrtus
(Raestes) alatus Steindachner.)

Gulbertolus Eigenmann, in Kigenmann and Ogle,
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 33: 3. 1907. (New
name to replace Gilbertella Eigenmann,
preoccupied.)

KEY TO THE SUBSPECIES OF GILBERTOLUS ALATUS

la. Pores in lateral line 58 or 59; pectoral rays
usually 1,17; black caudal spot barely ex-
_ tending on base of middle rays of caudal fin

u Published. by permission of the Secretary of
Bee uthsonian Institution. Received April 22,

LEoNnARD P. Scuuutrz, U. 8. National Museum.

(see table for counts) (Magdalena Basin). .
et ele ern G. a. alatus (Steindachner)?
1b. Pores in lateral line to base of caudal fin rays
63 to 68; pectoral rays usually 1,16; black
caudal spot extending on base of caudal fin
rays as far as on caudal peduncle (Mara-
CAD ORBASIY ject scans eae ee
Be eae pag G. a. maracaiboensis, n. subsp.
lc. Pores in lateral line 69 to 74; pectoral rays
usually 1,17; black caudal spot not extend-
ing on base of caudal fin rays, becoming less
distinct in larger specimens (Atrato Basin)
Se ey eae Sie ea G. a. atratoensis, n. subsp.

Gilbertolus alatus maracaiboensis, n. subsp.

Holotype.—U.S.N.M. no. 121386, a female
specimen, 120 mm in standard length, collected
by Leonard P. Schultz, March 11, 1942, in a
cano half a mile west of Sinamaica, Estado de
Zulia, Venezuela.

Paratypes (all collected by author).—U.S.
N.M. no. 121387, 4 specimens, 107 to 126.5
mm, taken along with the holotype and bearing
the same data; U.S.N.M. no. 121388, 1 exam-
ple, 61 mm, February 24, 1942, from the Rio
Socuy, 3 km above its mouth, Maracaibo
Basin; U.S.N.M. no. 121389, 1 specimen, 75
mm, March 2, 1942, from the Rio Negro below
mouth of Rio Yasa, Maracaibo Basin.

Description.—This description is based on
the holotype and six paratypes. Detailed meas-

2 Anacyrtus (Raestes) alatus Steindachner,

Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien 39: 65. 1878 (Rio
Magdalena)..

274

urements were made on the holotype and a
paratype, and these data, expressed in hun-
dredths of the standard length, are recorded be-
low, respectively.

Standard length, in mm, 120 and 107. Length
of head 24.3 and 25.0; greatest depth of body
37.5 and 35.5; length of snout 5.42 and 6.08;
diameter of orbit 7.66 and 7.94; least width of
fleshy interorbital 6.50 and 6.52; postorbital
length of head (to most posterior tip of oper-
culum) 11.9 and 12.1; tip of snout to rear edge
of maxillary 12.8 and 13.8; distance from base
of last anal ray to midbase of caudal fin 10.1
and 9.82; least depth of caudal peduncle 10.1
and 9.82; length of anal fin base 40.6 and 44.0;
length of longest anal fin ray 14.6 and 13.6;
longest dorsal ray 17.1 and 18.0; longest pec-
toral (first) 35.4 and-37.6; longest pelvic ray
15.0 and 15.1; length of upper caudal lobe 24.2
and —; and of lower lobe 26.3 and —; tip of
snout to dorsal origin 57.9 and 58.2; snout to
anal origin 57.5 and 56.6; snout to adipose 87.5
and 86.0; snout to pelvic insertion 44.6 and
44.5; snout to pectoral insertion 26.9 and 28.5;
distance between tip of supraoccipital process
and dorsal origin 39.7 and 39.3; snout to tip of
supraoccipital process 19.0 and 19.6.

The following counts were made, respec-
tively: Dorsal rays 1,9 and 11,9; anal rays iv,40
and iv,45; pectorals i,16-1,16 and i,16-1,16;
pelvics i1,7-1,7 and i,7-1,6; pores in lateral line
to base of caudal fin rays 68 and 65; scales
above lateral line to origin of dorsal 14 and 13
and below lateral line to pelvic fin base 13 and
11; scales in a zigzag row around caudal ped-
uncle 21 and 22; scale rows in front of dorsal
to tip of supraoccipital process 42 and 41;
branched caudal fin rays 17 and 17; gill rakers
on first gill arch — and 8+1-+15.

Body compressed, the greatest depth usually
through region of anus and contained a little
less than 3 times in standard length, head about
4, base of anal fin about 23, both in standard
length; eye large, much longer than snout,
about 3, interorbital about 43, mouth (snout
to rear of maxillary) 2, all in length of head;
mouth equal to snout and eye; origin of dorsal
an equal distance between midbase of caudal
fin rays and front margin of the opercular bone;
origin of anal a little in advance of dorsal
origin, the latter over the base of the fourth
branched anal ray; pelvic insertions a little
closer to rear of pectoral bases than to anal

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VOL. 33, NO. 9

origin; ventral margin sharply keeled from in
front of anal fin to between rear bases of pec-
torals, thence a hard low ridge ending at
isthmus; lateral line a little decurved behind
head, thence following a straight course to one
scale row below midbase of caudal fin; length
of caudal peduncle equal to its least depth;
palatine bones forming an elevated ridge but
edentulous; premaxillaries with a pair of ca-
nines at their symphysis, then seven pairs of
short sharp-pointed conical teeth laterally;
maxillaries with a series of sharp-pointed coni-
cal teeth; teeth in both jaws in a single series;
dentaries with two pairs of long canines, the
outer pair fanglike; two pairs of short conical
teeth between the inner pair of canines; den-
taries behind outer pair of canines with a series
of widely spaced conical teeth; canines on lower
jaw fitting into pits in upper jaw; lower lobe of
caudal fin longer than upper lobe; caudal fin
deeply concave or forked; first rays of all fins
longest; the first pectoral rays are exceedingly
elongate, reaching past anal origin to a vertical
line through dorsal origin; pelvics reaching not
quite so far; anal origin a little closer to tip of
snout than midcaudal base; pectoral fin lanceo-
late in shape; dorsal fin rather short, about
equal to eye and postorbital length of head;
breast is thick and heavy, the width across
prepectoral shields about equal to two eye
diameters, and it is the widest part of the body;
prepectoral shield with a notch; lower angle of
preopercular bone with a short flat, spinelike
projection posteriorly; the second suborbital
does not quite cover two-thirds of the cheek,
and the remainder is fleshy; the gill rakers are
rather long and slender, numbering 7 or 8+1
+14 or 15.

Color.—Silvery on sides, back darker; the
black caudal spot extends as much on the
basal portion of the caudal fin rays as on caudal
peduncle, and is a little larger than pupil;
margin of thick lower lip blackish; membranes
of fins pigmented, the rays less so; in the two
smaller specimens a lateral dark band occurs
above lateral line, ending in the black caudal
spot; peritoneum silvery.

Remarks.—Among other characters this new
subspecies differs from the other two forms re-
ferred to the genus Gilbertolus as indicated in
the key. Named maracaiboensts in reference to
the Maracaibo Basin in which specimens have
been collected.

Sept. 15, 1943

Gilbertolus alatus atratoensis, n. subsp.

Gilbertolus alatus Eigenmann (not of Steindach-
ner), Mem. Carnegie Mus. 9(1): 164, pl.
26, fig. 1. 1922.

Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 76976, a specimen
91 mm in standard length, collected by Wilson
at Quibdo, Rio Atrato, Colombia.

Paratypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 120170, 14 speci-
mens, collected along with the holotype and
bearing same data.

Description—Detailed measurements were
made on the holotype and one of the paratypes.
These data, expressed in hundredths of the
standard length, are recorded below, respec-
tively.

Standard length, in mm, 91 and 87.4. Length
of head 25.9 and 24.7; greatest depth 35.2 and
35.3; length of snout 6.04 and 5.95; diameter of
orbit 9.67 and 9.16; least width of fleshy inter-
orbital space 6.15 and 6.30, postorbital length
of head 12.1 and 11.2; tip of snout to rear of
maxillary 13.0 and 13.5; length of caudal ped-
uncle 9.78 and 9.72; least depth of caudal
peduncle 9.34 and 9.84; length of base of anal
fin 42.4 and 42.6; length of longest ray of anal
— and 17.2; longest dorsal ray 18.7 and 18.1;
longest pectoral ray 35.3 and 36.4; longest
pelvic ray 11.9 and 12.2; length of upper caudal
lobe 24.2 and —; lower caudal lobe 28.6 and —;
tip of snout to dorsal origin 57.9 and 57.0; snout
to anal origin 57.2 and 55.2; snout to adipose
origin 87.5 and 87.0; snout to pelvic insertion
47.8 and 45.4; snout to pectoral insertion 29.7
and 28.6; distance from tip of supraoccipital
process to dorsal origin 37.4 and 36.7; snout

SCHULTZ: CHARACINID FISHES FROM SOUTH AMERICA

275

tip to posterior point of supraoccipital process
20.8 and 20.3.

The following counts were made, respec-
tively: Dorsal rays 1,9 and 1,9; anal rays iv,43
and iv,46; pectoral 1,17-1,17 and i,17-,17;
pelvies i,7—-1,7 and i,7-1,7; pores in lateral line
72 and 71; scales from dorsal origin to lateral
line 13 and 138, and from lateral line to pelvic
base 12 and 138; zigzag row of scales around
caudal peduncle 21 and 22; number of gill
rakers on first gill arch 8+1+15and7+1+14;
number of scale rows from tip of supraoccipital
process to dorsal origin— and 41; branched
caudal fin rays 17 and 17.

It is unnecessary to describe this subspecies
as fully as maracazboensis, as it is very similar
in all except the following respects: Dorsal
origin equidistant between midcaudal base and
rear or orbit; the notch in prepectoral shield is
much shallower, so that there is hardly any
platelike projection at the lower angle; the
spiny platelike projection at lower preopercular
angle is shorter, so that there is only an indica-
tion ef a shallow notch above it; the pectorals
reach a little past a vertical through dorsal
origin.

Color.—Caudal spot does not extend out on
basis of middle caudal fin rays; otherwise color
is the same as in maracazboensis.

Remarks.—This new subspecies may be dis-
tinguished from other subspecies referred to the
genus Gilbertolus by means of the key.

Named atratoensts in reference to the river
system in which it occurs.

TaBLE 1.—Counts RECORDED ON THE SUBSPECIES OF GIBERTOLUS ALATUS (STEINDACHNER)

Number of fin rays

Subspecies Anal Pectoral Pelvies Dorsal
iv,40 | iv,41 | iv,42 | iv,43 | iv,44 | iv,45 | iv,46 | iv,47 |iv,48]iv,49| 1,15 | 1,16 | 1,17 TIS} yf (9) 37 ii,8 | 1,9
atratoensis....) — — — — 1 — — 18 = 10 — 11
maracaiboensis| 1 — — — 4 2 — — — — 2 11 1 — 1 8 iL 6
alatus........ —}—;} — +} — |} — | — | — | — |] 1 a || A 1 a 1 1 au
IP Ee IRR a OE SIE) tel SO er ae a ee ee ee ee
Number of scales
eT Oren ig ve es en te ie ee
! : Below lateral line
Number of pores in lateral line Above lateral line feipelnicibase
581591601 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 |69| 70| 71 | 72|73|74| 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 10 Wil ]) 1) 13
atratoensis....) —|— | —}]— | — | — | — |—!|—|—|— Tele pale Sal Sele 2) alt —— 1 6 3 1}— iL 4] 6
maracaiboensis| — | — | — | — | — Syl Ie |) Bie eT | 2 1 DO a 3 1 it
PUNE «if 00 0s LD) | a el SS 1 te a

i ee ee le

276

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

ZOOLOGY .—Two new ostracods of the genus Entocythere and records of previously

described species.!

At the time of publication of the writer’s
previous paper (1942) establishing the sub-

family Entocytherinae of cytherid ostracods ©

and describing two new species of the genus
Entocythere epizoic on crayfishes, it seemed
apparent that further examination of cray-
fishes would reveal other undescribed species
of the group. At that time the writer had in
his possession a few poorly prepared speci-
mens of an undescribed species of the genus
Entocythere. Upon examination of large
numbers of specimens taken in recent col-
lections, this undescribed form has been
found in sufficient numbers to merit de-
scription. The present paper describes this
as a new species, as well as a second new
species. The opportunity is taken here to
list records of previously described species of
Entocythere from crayfishes collected in sev-
eral States of the lower Mississippi Valley.

The bulk of material upon which this
study is based was obtained from crayfishes
collected by the writer during the spring of
1942 from areas in Illinois, Tennessee,
Louisiana, and Arkansas. The crayfishes ob-
tained from Tennessee were collected with
the assistance of Prof. C. L. Baker while the
writer was working at the Reelfoot Lake
Biological Station under a research grant
from the Tennessee Academy of Science.
The crayfishes from Illinois were identified
by the writer, and all the others were identi-
fied by Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., Univer-
sity of Florida. This study was aided by
a grant from the American Association for
the Advancement of Science through the
Illinois State Academy of Science.

For a discussion of the ostracods epizoic
on crayfishes and diagnoses of the subfamily
Entocytherinae, the genus Entocythere, and
the subgenera of the latter, the reader is re-
ferred to the paper by Hoff (1942).

Entocythere (Cytherites) riojai, n. sp.
nicer |
The type material was taken from several
crayfishes of the species Orconectes virilis

1 Received April 20, 1943.

C. Cuayton Horr, Quincy College, Quincy, Ill.
municated by CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. )

(Com-

(Hagen) collected from a stream in South Park,
Quincey, Adams County, IIl., on April 18, 1942.
Holotype (female), allotype, and a number of
paratypes, U.S.N.M. 81292. Additional para-
types have been retained provisionally in the
writer’s collection. The female selected as holo-
type was taken while in copulation, the male
of the pair being the allotype. The paratypes
include both gravid and copulating females,
since the two kinds differ in several ways. It
might appear inadvisable to select as the holo-
type a copulating, nongravid female rather
than a gravid one, but, when the male and fe-
male of a copulating pair are selected as the
first types, there is little possibility of desig-
nating as holotype and allotype individuals of
different species.

This new species is named in honor of Dr.
Enrique Rioja, an outstanding Mexican taxon- —
omist, who has recently described two new spe-
cies of the genus Hntocythere (Rioja, 1940,
1942). Dr. Rioja was the first to discover the
presence of two kinds of females in species of
the genus Hntocythere.

Female. The shell (Fig. 1, A) of the copulat-
ing female is ovate-oblong in general shape,
with little irregularity in outline as seen from
the side. The anterior end is more narrowly
rounded than the posterior, since the greatest
height is near the center of the posterior one-
half of the shell. The dorsal margin is weakly
convex, while the ventral margin presents a
shallow concavity at about the anterior one-
third. In some individuals this concavity is so
poorly developed that the ventral margin is
practically straight. Posterior to the concavity
the ventral margin is slightly convex. The very
fine marginal hairs of the shell are few in num-
ber and are evenly spaced along the ventral and
end margins of the shell. The anterior one-
third of the shell is unmarked and transparent.
The posterior two-thirds, the part beginning a
short distance posterior to the eye, is usually
marked by very fine pits and colored by ag-
gregations of pigment flecks. These flecks are
often concentrated in two areas: one near the
center of the dorsal margin extending ventrally
toward the center of the shell and the other

Sept. 15, 1943 HOFF: NEW OSTRACODS OF GENUS ENTOCYTHERE 277

close to the posterior margin of the shell. In a Below are given measurements of several
few individuals the flecks have been observed _ shells of copulating females cleared in xylol and
to cover most of the posterior two-thirds of the mounted in clarite. These measurements are
shell, but, even in this case, there are always of females found in copulation at the time of
concentrations of pigment in the two areas al- capture.

ready described. The eye is large in all in- Length Height
dividuals and is located about one-fifth of the ie a Bae es ace a
distance from the anterior end of the shell. 0.35 0.19 apnea)

Fig. 1—Entocythere riojai, n. sp.: A, Shell of female holotype as viewed from the right; B, distal
part of antenna of copulating female paratype; C, distal part of antenna of gravid female paratype;
D, ventral claw of the antenna of a male paratype seen from the flexor side; £, lateral view of the
mandibular palp of a gravid female paratype; Ff, mesial view of the maxillary palp and protopodite
of a gravid female paratype; G, lateral view of first leg of gravid female paratype; H, shell of male
allotype viewed from the left; J, mesial view of the distal portion of the antenna of a male paratype; J,
mesial view of the copulatory organ of the left side of a male paratype; K, the distal end of the ‘‘clasp-
ing appendage” of the male allotype; L, the distal end of the ‘‘clasping appendage”’ of a male para-

ype.

All figures were drawn from specimens mounted in clarite. A camera lucida was used. The scale in
A equals 0.2 mm and applies also to H. The scale in B equals 0.02 mm and applies as well to C. The
scale in D equals 0.01 mm and applies also to J. The scale in E equals 0.025 mm; that of F, 0.01 mm;
oe of G, 0.025 mm; and that of J, 0.025 mm. The scale in K is equal to 0.01 mm and also applies

o L.

278

Measurements of females from other localities
show considerable variation in shell size, with
a tendency in many cases for the shells to be
somewhat smaller than those of the type col-
lection.

The shell of the gravid female is very similar
to that of the copulating type already men-
tioned, except that the concavity of the ventral
margin is much more pronounced and the size
of the shell is about 10 percent greater, the
length ranging from 0.35 to 0.40 mm or slightly
more with the height proportional. Eggs can
usually be observed in the gravid type of fe-
male but were not seen in copulating females.
The eggs range in number from one to four,
with two or three the usual number.

With the exception of the antennae, the ap-
pendages of the copulating and gravid females
are identical in nature. Each antennule is com-
posed of six podomeres. The width of the
podomeres decreases in order from proximal to
distal. The third podomere is almost square in
lateral view, the more distal ones becoming
cylindrical. The terminal podomere is the
slenderest, having a length between four and
five times the central width. The two basal
podomeres each appear to bear a single seta;
the third two setae; the fourth five somewhat
shortened setae, few of which in any individual
extend much beyond the level of the tip of the
ultimate podomere of the appendage; the
penultimate or fifth podomere has no seta;
while on the ultimate podomere there are five
setae, none of which has a length greater than
three times the length of the supporting podo-
mere.

The chief differences between the two kinds
of females are to be found in the antennae.
Each antenna in the female is composed of four
podomeres exclusive of the exopodite or flagel-
lum, which extends to a level with the end of
the terminal claws of the appendage. The ante-
penultimate podomere of the antenna or the
first podomere of the endopodite bears on the
flexor-distal corner a long, heavy seta, which
extends nearly to the level of the origin of the
most distal seta of the penultimate podomere.
The penultimate podomere of the copulating
female (Fig. 1, B) is undivided, but in the
gravid female (Fig. 1, C) a division occurs, so
that the antenna appears to be formed of five
podomeres, exclusive of the exopodite. In the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

copulating female the penultimate podomere
has three setae, two forming a pair near the
center on the ventral or flexor surface of the ap-
pendage and the third a short distance from the
distal margin on the flexor surface. The most
distal seta of the penultimate podomere has a
length somewhat greater than the central width
of the podomere, while each seta of the more
proximally situated pair has a length about
equal to the width of the podomere. In the
gravid female the divided penultimate podo-
mere bears a pair of setae on the distal-flexor
corner of the basal portion. Another seta is lo-
cated on the flexor margin of the distal portion
about one-third of the distance from the distal
end. Each of these three setae is as long as or
longer than the basal portion of the podomere.
In general, the setae of the antenna are some-
what longer in the gravid than in the copulating
female. The ultimate podomere in both kinds of
females is small, serving merely as articulation
area for the terminal claws. The copulating
female has two claws, a large ventral or pos-
terior claw with a row of spinelike teeth pass-
ing along both sides and around the distal end
as in the male (Fig. 1, D), having the appear-
ance from the side, however, of a single row of
teeth. These teeth or spines are stout on the
distal portion of the claw but become some-
what shortened and weakened near the base.
The anterior or dorsal claw is very slender,
shorter than the other, and has a few poorly
developed spines on the concave surface. The
antenna of the gravid female bears three ter-
minal claws, since in addition to the two de-
scribed for the copulating female there is a
third located mesially between the bases of the
larger claws. This third claw is small and a
little less than one-half the length of the dorsal
claw of the antenna. It bears a few weak, short
teeth.

The mouth parts are similar in both kinds of
females. The mandibles have five to seven,
usually six, flattened, spatulalike, multiple-
cusped teeth. Two or three small additional
teeth may be found in some individuals. The
most distal tooth is much wider than the others
and has six or seven cusps; the more proximal —
teeth being progressively smaller and exhibiting
fewer cusps. The respiratory plate is reduced
to three setae. The palp (Fig. 1, EZ) is composed
of four podomeres. The joint between the basal

Supt. 15, 1943

and the next or antepenultimate podomere of
the palp is, however, weakly expressed, while
the suture between the antepenultimate and
the penultimate podomeres can not be dis-
cerned except under optimum conditions. The
distal-flexor margin of the basal podomere sup-
ports a long, curved seta reaching to the distal
end of the ultimate podomere; the antepenulti-
mate podomere has no setae; the penultimate
has two setae, a short one near the distal-
extensor corner and a somewhat laterally
placed longer seta originating from the an-
terior one-third of the podomere; the ultimate
podomere bears terminally a heavy, slightly
curved spine at the base of which is inserted a
heavy seta nearly equal in length to the length
of the spine. The maxilla (Fig. 1, F) has an
unjointed palp extending far beyond the distal
end of the protopodite and ending in two claw-
like spines, each falciform, but the ventral one
slightly longer and heavier than the other.
The two are nearly parallel throughout their
length. The base or protopodite ends in two
long, stiffened setae, each somewhat longer
than the terminal spine of the palp. The re-
spiratory plate usually has 17 setae or rays,
although it is very difficult to make an ac-
curate count since the long and slender setae
are extremely transparent and can be seen only
in preparations made and examined with more
than ordinary care. In the case of dissections
the respiratory plate is often pulled loose from
the protopodite, since the attachment is by a
very slender basal stalk. For these reasons the
respiratory plate easily may be overlooked.
Each of the three thoracic legs is composed of
four podomeres. The first thoracic leg (Fig. 1,
G) has two plumose setae at the anterior-distal
corner of the first podomere. These setae are
nearly equal in length, each being almost as
long as the next more distal podomere. A single
slightly plumose seta is found at the anterior-
distal corner of the basal podomere of each leg
of the second and third pairs. Each seta has a
length not much more than one-half of the
length of the antepenultimate podomere. The
second podomere of each leg bears a single seta
on the anterior margin of each leg a short dis-
tance removed from the distal margin. The
length of this seta shows considerable variation
but in general is not less than one-half of the
width of the podomere at the base of the seta

HOFF: NEW OSTRACODS OF GENUS ENTOCYTHERE

279

or more than the width of the podomere. The
penultimate podomere is distally somewhat
widened and meets the ultimate podomere in a
poorly marked, probably little movable, joint.
The penultimate podomere of each leg bears
on the anterior distal corner a seta that has a
length approximate to the length of the ulti-
mate podomere. This seta is often so closely
appressed to the anterior margin of the distal
podomere that it is seen with difficulty. The
ultimate podomere of each leg is wider than
long. When the terminal claw is flexed the seta
of the penultimate podomere contacts the teeth
or spines of the terminal claw. Each of the
terminal claws bears, on the average, five long
teeth.

Male.—Shell of the male (Fig. 1, H) differing
from that of the copulating female only by a
ventral margin slightly convex throughout its
length and a posterior margin flattened along
the dorsal one-half. The measurements of
several males mounted in clarite are as follows:

Length Height
0.33 mm 0.18 mm (allotype)
0.34 0.18 (paratype)
0.32 0.18 (paratype)
0.37 0.19 (paratype)

The appendages differ in a few respects from
those of the female. The chief difference be-
tween individuals of the two sexes is in the
antenna, which in the male is modified for
clasping the female during copulation. As in
the gravid female, the penultimate podomere
of the antenna is divided so that the appendage
has five apparent podomeres. The setae of the
antenna are placed in the same position but are
relatively shorter than those of the gravid
female. Like the gravid female, there are three
end claws (Fig. 1, J). These elaws are slightly
longer than in the gravid female, the ventral
claw especially being slenderer and lacking the
bulbose basal portion observed in the corre-
sponding claw of the gravid female. The an-
terior dorsal claw has a length equal to about
three-fourths of the length of the longer but
slenderer ventral claw. This dorsal claw is heavy
throughout its length, is gently curved, and
ends distally in a flattened, widened area,
which bears a circular row of long teeth or
spines that pass around the sides and end, the
teeth appearing in side view like the teeth of a
comb. The small mesial claw has a length equal

280

to about one-half of the anterior or dorsal
claw. The mouth parts of the male are similar
to those of the female. The thoracic legs differ
only in the relative lengths of some of the setae,
of which those of the antepenultimate podo-
meres seem usually to be longer in the male
than in the female, each having a length greater
than the width of the leg at the base of the
seta.

The copulatory organ (Fig. 1, J) in the male
consists of a base and three accessory pieces.
The base is proximally widened but abruptly
narrowed near the center of the anterior mar-
gin at the point of attachment of the accessory
pieces. The most dorsal of the three accessory
pieces has a short base and~-a single straight
distal seta almost equal in length to the base.
The next or center accessory piece is long and
slender, being curved at each end but more or
less straightened centrally. This accessory
piece ends in a seta equal in length to the seta
of the first accessory piece. The third or most
distal accessory piece (Fig. 1, K and L) is
heavy and falciform. This structure is often
called the ‘‘clasping appendage.’’ The end of
this accessory piece is blunt and distally
marked by three or four rounded teeth. The
concave margin is toothed with usually two,
rarely three, widely separated, almost papilla-
form teeth. The ‘‘clasping appendage’”’ extends
for some distance beyond the base of the copu-
latory organ.

Remarks.—At the present time, it would be
difficult to attempt a discussion of the natural
relationships of the species in the subgenus
Cytherites Sars, 1926, especially since the male
of Entocythere (Cytherites) insignipes (Sars,
1926), the type of the subgenus C'ytherites, is
unknown. The subgenera of the genus Ento-
cythere seem poorly defined, and the entire
classification of forms within the genus needs
to be reviewed. It is even difficult now to indi-
cate in some of the species a convenient com-
bination of characteristics that might serve as
a basis for rapid recognition. Except on the
basis of the characteristics of the ‘‘clasping ap-
pendage,”’ of the male copulatory organ, many
of the species of the subgenus may be accu-
rately separated from one another only by
careful and detailed study. In the various spe-
cies of the genus Entocythere, there are a few
characteristics which, when carefully applied,
serve to separate other species from LE. riojat.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

As an aid to future work, a list of the known
species of the genus is given here along with
an indication of the way in which each may be

separated from EF. riojat.

Entocythere cambaria Marshall, 1903, E. il-
linovsensts Hoff, 1942, and LE. claytonhoffi
Rioja, 1942, differ from E. riojai by being much
greater in shell length, about 0.60 mm, and by
having fewer setae in the respiratory plate of
the maxilla. These forms have been assigned
to the subgenus E’ntocythere Marshall, 19038, as
diagnosed by Hoff (1942).

EH. wnsignipes (Sars, 1926) differs from E.
rrojat by having seven podomeres and three
terminal setae in the antennule, while the latter
has six podomeres and five terminal setae. The
male copulatory organ of E. insignipes is un-
described, the original description of the species
being based entirely upon female specimens.

Both E. heterodonta Rioja, 1940, and E.
donnaldsonensts Klie, 1931, differ from E. riojat
by the absence of a seta on the penultimate
podomere of each thoracic leg. Neither species
has a long, falciform “clasping appendage” with
a regular, entire convex surface that could be
confused with that structure in HL. riojat.

E. columbia Dobbin, 1941, is easily sepa-
rated from E. riojai by the size, about 0.60 mm
in length, and the peculiar shape of the shell.
There are also fewer setae in the respiratory
plate of the maxilla according to a personal
communication from Dr. Dobbin (Evenson).
The “clasping appendage”’ is less curved than
in E. riojat.

E. copiosa Hoff, 1942, may be separated
with difficulty from E. riojai except by the
“clasping appendage,” which in the former has
the convex margin subdistally divided in con-
trast to the entire convex surface of that struc-
ture in EF. riojai. Also E. copiosa is slightly
larger; the setae of the respiratory plate of the
maxilla are stronger and more easily seen; and
the teeth of the ventral claw of the antenna are
usually weaker. These last characteristics are
not, however, in every instance entirely de-
pendable for separation of the two species.

E. humesi, the second species described as
new in this paper, is much larger than E. riojat
and has four terminal setae on the antennule
and only two setae representing the respiratory
plate of the mandible. The clasping appendage
is not so long or curved as in E. riojat.

The problems of intrageneric .and inter-

Sepr. 15, 19438

generic relationships in the Entocytherinae and
the identification of species are further com-
plicated by the occurrence in some species, as
in E. riojat, of two kinds of females: the copu-
lating and the gravid. Dr. Rioja in a personal
communication to the writer has mentioned the
presence of two kinds of females in a species of
Entocythere from Mexico. Paris (1920) men-
tions two types of females, ‘nubile’ and
“ovigére,”’ in the European species Sphaero-
micola topsentt Paris, 1916, but does not dis-
cuss the two kinds in detail or account for their
occurrence. Paris points out the shell differ-
ences, especially the increased size and angu-
larity of the shell of the ‘“‘ovigére”’ type of fe-
male, but mentions no differences in the an-
tennae of the two kinds of females. In E. riojar
the copulating females have the penultimate
podomere of the antenna undivided and the
antenna ending in two claws, while the gravid
females have a divided penultimate podomere
and three antennary claws.

An exact explanation of the occurrence of the
two types of females can not be given at this
time. In observations made on about 75 adult
individuals, the majority of them females, it
was noticed that all the females found in copu-
lation were characterized by an undivided
penultimate podomere in the antenna and two
end claws. These have been designated as
copulating females. None were observed in a
gravid condition. On the other hand, practi-
cally all the larger females with the divided
penultimate podomere and three end claws on
the antenna were found to be carrying large,
well-formed eggs. The females of this type
never were observed in copulation.

On first noticing the two kinds of females,
the writer supposed that he had discovered a
case of parthenogenesis, since this phenomenon
would explain the occurrence of copulation in
the one kind of female and not in the other.
Parthenogenetic development is known in
many fresh-water ostracods, being common in
species of the family Cypridae, but a morpho-
logical difference as exhibited here between fe-
males of the two kinds apparently is unre-
ported. Observation does not substantiate the
hypothesis that there is one type of female
producing eggs requiring fertilization before
development and another kind producing eggs
developing without fertilization, since, if the
hypothesis held, eggs should be observed in at

HOFF: NEW OSTRACODS OF GENUS ENTOCYTHERE

281

least a few of the smaller females. Such eggs
have not been found. The only adequate ex-
planation for the two kinds of females seems to
be that a molt occurs between the time of copu-
lation and the time of development of the eggs
within the ovary. At the time of this molt
there appear the three claws and the divided
penultimate podomere of the antenna as char-
acteristic of the larger, gravid female. Whether
this explanation is the correct one can be deter-
mined only by observation of the development
of females in culture. Unfortunately, methods
of culturing the epizoic ostracods are as yet
undeveloped.

Ecology.—The lack of host specificity in the
relationship between EF. riojai and different
species of crayfishes supports the writer’s
(1942) former observations. Three different
species of crayfish are reported as being hosts
to E. riojat in the six collections. These cray-
fish species are given in the paragraph on dis-
tribution.

In the six collections made of E. riojai, the
species was found associated twice with E.
copiosa and four times with LE. illinoisensis. By
this association is meant the finding of ostra-
cods from the crayfishes of one collection and
not from the same crayfish, since all the cray-
fishes of a collection are examined together as a
single lot. E. rzojat was found alone in two col-
lections, but the absence of other forms from
these two collections may be the result of small
samples.

A review of the habitats, from which the ma-
terial was secured, reveals the interesting fact
that E. riojai has been found only on crayfishes
from small streams where there is considerable
current and never from the quiet waters of
lakes or the larger, more slowly flowing streams.
Large numbers of collections from different
areas may make possible some interesting
ecological deductions with reference to this and
other species of Entocythere.

Distribution.—In addition to the type lo-
cality, where the species is very abundant,
E. riojat has been found in collections as fol-
lows: a few individuals from Orconectes virilis
(Hagen), Salt Fork at Homer Park, near
Homer, Champaign County, Ill., on May 23,
1940; a few individuals from Orconectes pro-
pinquus (Girard) from Stony Creek, Oakwood,
Vermilion County, Ill., September 19, 1940; a
few individuals from Orconectes propinquus

282

(Girard) taken from the stream in Crystal Lake
Park, Urbana, Champaign County, IIl., Octo-
ber 2, 1940; a number of individuals taken
from Orconectes longimanus (Faxon) in a
stream near Casa, Perry County, Ark., June
17, 1942; several individuals from Orconectes
meeki (Faxon) from a stream near Crossroads,
Pulaski County, Ark., on June 17, 1942.

Entocythere (Cytherites)
humesi, n. sp.
Fig. 2

The type material was secured from a single
slightly atypical male crayfish of the species
Cambarus bartoni robustus Girard collected by
Dr. Arthur G. Humes from a stream near
Boston, Erie County, N. Y., on May 17, 1942.
Holotype (female), allotype, and one paratype
(female), U.S.N.M. 81293. Four paratypes, one
male, one female, and two immature indi-
viduals, have been retained in the collection of
the writer. This species is named in honor of the
collector, Dr. Arthur G. Humes.

Female.—Shell from the side (Fig. 2, A)
subreniform, with the posterior end higher and
more broadly rounded than the anterior. The
ventral margin of the shell has a shallow con-
cavity deepest just behind the anterior one-
third of the shell, while the posterior one-half
of the ventral margin is weakly convex. The
anterior end of the shell is narrowly rounded.
The anterior margin meets the dorsal margin
without interruption except for a slight inden-
tation just ventral to the junction of the two
margins. The dorsal margin is strongly arched
with the highest point or apex located between
the center and the posterior one-third of the
margin. From the apex the dorsal margin
slopes in an even arc both anteriorly and pos-
teriorly. The posterior margin is dorsally some-
what flattened: but ventrally rounded, meeting
the ventral margin without angulation. In
juvenile individuals a distinct protuberance or
angulation is located at the posterior-ventral
corner of the shell. The eye is well developed,
is easily observed through the transparent
valves, and is located near the anterior one-
fifth of the shell. The valves appear asetaceous
and show no important shell sculpturing. Poor-
ly developed, scattered areas of pigment occur,
however, on the dorsal one-half of each valve
posterior to the eye. A more complete descrip-
tion of the shell is at present impossible be-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

cause the material available for study is limited.
Some indication of the shell size is shown by
the following measurements of a gravid female
paratype: length of shell, 0.50 mm; height at
level of ventral concavity, 0.24 mm; greatest
height, 0.29 mm.

With respect to the cephalic appendages,
each antennule is composed of six podomeres.
The first or basal podomere is heavy; the
second has a length little less than twice the
width; the third has a length about one and
one-half times the width; the fourth or ante-
penultimate podomere is about twice as long as -
wide; the penultimate about as long as the
antepenultimate but much slenderer; the ul-
timate is six to seven times as long as wide,
with a length approximate to that of the next
more proximal podomere. The basal podomere
appears to bear a single seta on the ventral-
distal corner, while the distal seta of the second
podomere is somewhat mesial in position. The
third podomere supports two setae. The ante-
penultimate podomere has four distal setae,
one on the flexor margin and one on the ex-
tensor margin, with the other two mesial in
position. These setae are long, some of them
reaching slightly beyond the base of the ter-
minal setae of the appendage. The fifth or
penultimate podomere does not bear setae, but
four terminal setae are located on the ultimate
podomere of the antennule. The antennae
closely resemble the antennae of several other
species of the subgenus Cytherites Sars, 1926,
each being composed of four podomeres, ex-
clusive of the exopodite, and ending in two
claws (Fig. 2, B). The penultimate podomere is
undivided. The anterior or dorsal terminal
claw is weak, with the teeth so poorly de-
veloped that they are seen only with great
difficulty. The ventral claw is the larger, is
proximally bulbose, and has a comblike row
of long teeth along the distal two-thirds of the
claw. The penultimate podomere of the an-
tenna has a length nearly equal to three times
the average width of the podomere and bears
three setae on the flexor or ventral margin.
One of these is removed a short distance from
the distal end of the podomere, and the other
two form a pair slightly anterior to the center.
Each has a length almost equal to the width
of the podomere at the base of the seta. The
seta of the flexor-distal corner of the ante-
penultimate podomere has a heavy basal por-

Sept. 15, 1943

tion and does not reach the level of the origin
of the most distal seta of the penultimate
podomere. The antepenultimate or second
podomere of the antenna (the basal podomere
of the endopodite) has a distal width approxi-
mate to the length of the ventral margin. The
flagellum or exopodite reaches to the level of
the terminal claws of the endopodite. The
protopodite of the mandible bears six spade-
like or spatulaform teeth, the mesial two usu-
ally being longer than the others and having a
single cusp, while the more laterally placed
teeth are multicusped, the outside one having
six well-developed denticles or cusps. In some
instances a small but rudimentary additional
tooth may be found mesial to the others, thus
making seven teeth in all. A short distance
proximal to the teeth the protopodite bears a
short, heavy seta on the convex or anterior
surface. This seta is directed toward the distal
end of the protopodite. The respiratory plate
is represented by two setae: one more than
one-third as long as the mandibular palp, the
other about one-fourth the length of the palp.

——_—___,
. |
=

HOFF: NEW OSTRACODS OF GENUS ENTOCYTHERE

283

In some individuals one of these setae appears
to be directed mesially, usually closely ap-
pressed to the protopodite, while the shorter
of the two setae often stands erect. These setae
are fleshy in appearance, the bases being
widened, and they appear to originate from a
small papilla. The mandibular palp (Fig. 2,
C) of four podomeres extends distally beyond
the protopodite. In this palp the juncture of the
basal and second podomere is not well marked
but can be located by noticing the origin of the
seta at the distal-flexor corner of the basal
podomere. This seta reaches the level of the
ultimate podomere of the palp. The straight
basal two-thirds of the seta is often directed
parallel to the flexor margin of the palp, while
the distal one-third is evenly curved. The
probably inarticulate juncture of the ante-
penultimate or second and the penultimate or
third podomere is too weak to be easily ob-
served. On the anterior face, slightly removed
from the distal end of the penultimate podo-
mere, is a gently curved seta extending almost
to the tip of the terminal spine of the ultimate

oe ee C

Fig. 2.—Entocythere humesi, n. sp.: A, Shell of a female paratype as seen from the right side; B,
mesial view of the distal end of the endopodite of the antenna of a female paratype; C, anterior view
of the mandibular palp of the holotype; D, mesial view of the masticatory process and the maxillary °
palp of a female paratype; #, shell of male allotype viewed from the left side; F, mesial view of the
endopodite of the antenna of male allotype; G, lateral view of the distal end of the copulatory organ
of male allotype; H, end of ‘‘clasping appendage”’ of male allotype.

All figures were drawn with the aid of a camera lucida from specimens mounted in clarite. The scale
for A equals 0.2 mm and applies also to HE. The scale for B equals 0.025 mm and applies as well to F
and G. The scale for C equals 0.02 mm and may be applied to D. The scale for H is equal to 0.01 mm.

284

podomere, while at the extensor-distal corner
of the same podomere is a sharply pointed,
spinelike seta whose tip extends slightly be-
yond the distal end of the ultimate podomere.
The terminal podomere is distally narrowed
and has a flexor margin whose length is slightly
greater than the basal width of the podomore.
In addition to the heavy terminal spine, which
is curved near the tip, the ultimate podomere
bears two fine setae originating beneath the
base of the spine. The spine has a length some-
what greater than the length of the extensor
margin of the ultimate podomere, while each
seta is somewhat shorter. In Fig. 2, C, the ter-
minal podomere of the mandibular palp is
shown slightly rotated to expose the two ter-
minal setae, which are difficult to distinguish
as separate setae when observed in lateral or
mesial view. The maxilla (Fig. 2, D) includes a
single masticatory process, an unsegmented
palp, and a respiratory plate bearing 16 rays
or setae. The unsegmented palp ends in a heavy
but gently curved spine along the convex side
of which runs a second similarly curved but
slenderer spine, slightly shorter than the first.
The single masticatory process terminates dis-
tally in two long setae, each curved gently near
the tip and reaching some distance beyond the
base of the terminal spine of the palp.

The three pairs of thoracic legs are similar,
as each consists of four podomeres and ter-
minates in a sickle-shaped claw displaying on
the concave surface five teeth in addition to the
one that is a continuation of the basal portion
of the claw. The center teeth are considerably
longer than the others. The legs differ chiefly
in the presence of two setae at the anterior-
distal corner of the basal podomere of the legs
of the first pair but only a single seta in this
position in the legs of the second and third
pairs. The penultimate podomere of each leg
has a single heavy, short seta on the distal an-
terior corner. The antepenultimate podomere
supports a single seta on the anterior margin
somewhat removed from the distal end of the
podomere.

Male.—The shell of the male (Fig. 2, £) is
similar in general shape to that of the female
except that the concavity of the anterior por-
tion of the ventral margin seems to be more
weakly developed and may be so nearly want-
ing that the ventral margin appears practically
straight. Redescription with an indication of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

the limits of variability of shell size and shape
will be advisable when additional material can
be secured for study. Two males mounted in
clarite have shell measurements as follows:
length, 0.45 mm; height behind eye at level of
weak sinuation of ventral margin, 0.19 mm;
and maximum height at the level of the apex
of the dorsal margin, 0.24 mm.

The appendages of the male resemble those
of the female. The podomeres of the anten-
nules are not so wide, however, making them
appear slightly slenderer in general aspect.
The number and position of the setae are
identical in the antennules of the two sexes.
The antennae of the male (Fig. 2, F) present
the characteristics associated with that sex. As
is common among males of species of Ento-
cythere, the penultimate podomere of the pres-
ent species is so divided that each antenna ap-
pears to be composed of five podomeres. Two
setae stand at the flexor-distal corner of the
basal portion of the penultimate podomere,
while a third seta is located on the ventral mar-
gin slightly anterior to the center of the distal
portion. The antenna of the male terminates
in three claws. The ventral claw is long and has
very poorly developed teeth along only the
terminal one-third of the concave surface.
These teeth are much weaker than usual in
males of species of this genus. The extreme tip
of the ventral claw is bent ventrad. The dorsal
or anterior claw is shorter and heavier than the
first claw described and bears long teeth ar-
ranged comblike along the distally flattened
margin. The third claw is mesial in position,
being interposed in position between the bases
of the other two claws. This third claw has a
length equal to about two-fifths of the length
of the ventral claw and just reaches the proxi-
mal limit of the flattened area of the dorsal
claw. The teeth of the mesial claw are much
better developed than the teeth of the ventral
claw. Perhaps as a sexual difference, the seta
of the basal podomere of the endopodite of the
antenna reaches to the center of the ultimate
podomere of the endopodite, being much longer
than the corresponding seta in the female.
With respect to the mouth parts, the limited
material available makes impossible accurate
checking of all details pertaining to the man-
dible of the male. There seems, however, to be
close agreement in structure of the mandible
in the two sexes. It was clearly seen that the

Sept. 15, 1943

distal end of the ultimate podomere of the
mandibular palp of the male bears a long,
heavy, gently curved spine close to the base of
which originate two slender, short setae. The
maxilla of the male allotype appears to have a
respiratory plate bearing 17 rays or setae. The
setae of the respiratory plate could not be
counted accurately on the male paratype avail-
able. The slight variation of the allotype from
the 16-rayed condition observed in the female
holotype is no more than can be expected as
an individual difference. No essential differ-
ences were noticed between the thoracic legs
of the female and the male.

The copulatory organ (Fig. 2, G) differs dis-
tinctly from that of other known Entocythere
species. The base of this structure terminates
in a well-chitinized, truncate lobe. The base
supports three accessory pieces, of which the
dorsal is fleshy in appearance and consists of
a short base and a long, slender terminal spine.
The second or middle accessory piece has a
much longer base directed distally and an-
teriorly, extending just beyond the end of the
base of the copulatory organ. The second ac-
cessory piece is terminated by a slender, curved
spine approximate in length to the spine of the
first accessory piece. The third accessory piece
or “clasping appendage”’ (Fig. 2, H) is sickle-

HOFF: NEW OSTRACODS OF GENUS ENTOCYTHERE

2895

shaped or falciform, curved more distally than
proximally, and formed of a highly chitinized
bar, distally widened and fan-shaped, marked
terminally by longitudinal corrugations or
grooves. This “‘clasping appendage’’ reaches
almost to a level with the end of the spine of
the second accessory piece. .

Remarks.—Entocythere humesi may be sepa-
rated from other species of the genus Ento-
cythere by no single characteristic except the
shape of the “‘clasping appendage”’ of the male
copulatory organ. A combination of charac-
teristics will serve, however, in the case of the
female, for separation of HE. humesi from other
described species. This is the only species that
has a combination in the female of four ter-
minal setae on the antennule, an undivided
penultimate podomere in the antenna, and two
respiratory setae representing the respiratory
plate of the mandible.

Distribution—Known only from the type
locality.

Entocythere copiosa Hoff, 1942

In 1942, the present writer reported HL.
copiosa as abundant from a number of different
species of crayfishes collected from several
localities in [llinois. The present study reveals
the occurrence of this species in many collec-

TABLE 1.—COLLECTIONS OF THE Epi1zo1c OsTRACOD ENTOCYTHERE COPIOSA

Date Crayfish host Habitat Location

14-VI-1942....... Procambarus clarkii (Girard)........ Roadside diteh........ Near Port Allen, West Baton Rouge
P. blandingivi acutus (Girard) Parish, La.

14—-VI-1942....... a chanicia Girard) ascot ee eee Roadside ditch........ Near White Castle, Iberville Parish, La.

15-VI-1942....... P. blandingii acutus (Girard)........ Roadside ditch........ Near Alexandria, Rapides Parish, La.

15-VI-1942....... Eenahinecia (Ortmvanm) yee) oh ei eee ere Roadside ditoh........ Near Livonia, Pointe Coupee Parish, La.
P. clarkii (Girard)

15-VI-1942....... P. blandingii acutus (Girard)........ Roadside ditch........ Near Westover, West Baton Rouge Parish,
P. clarkii (Girard) La.

16-VI-1942....... P. blandingii acutus (Girard)........ Roadside ditch........ Near Dry Prong, Grant Parish, La.
Orconectes clypeata (Hay)

iV VOAD: hss Orconectes meeki (Faxon)!........... Stream caentas sere. Ivesville, Pulaski County, Ark.
P. blandingii acutus (Girard)

25-VI-1942....... ES clare (Girard) sane seen ele BAYOU Ly cymes aed Walnut Log, Obion County, Tenn.

26-VI-1942....... PNclonkii (Girard) aes ciee och ace oe 2 IBayOUrtS ses oor ?...| Walnut Log, Obion County, Tenn.

13-VII-1942...... aclamicvy (Girard) pace ssn Bayou). visto oes Walnut Log, Obion County, Tenn.

20-VII-1942...... Pe clarisin (Girarg) hrc ae kaen eet ake es = seueiee 2 See Lake Center, Obion County, Tenn.

25-VII-1942...... Cambarus d.dvogenes (Girard).......|*Streami.-.....:..%.... South of Walnut Log, Obion County,
Orconectes 1. immunis (Hagen) Tenn.

25-VII-1942...... O. %. vmmunis (Hagen)........-..... Small stream..... South of Walnut Log, Obion County,

Tenn.
25-VIT-1942....... Of 4%. ammunis (Hazen). ...-2..-5..- Pool in stream bed....| Near east side of Reelfoot Lake, Ob‘on

Procambarus clarkii (Girard)........

County, Tenn.
Near east side of Reelfoot Lake, Obion
County, Tenn.

1 Males of O. mceki in this collection reported as slightly atypical.

286

tions from widely separated areas in Louisiana,
Arkansas, and Tennessee. Data relative to
these collections are given here in tabular
form.

The data in the table show an apparent lack
of habitat selection in the instance of this spe-
cies, since the form is found in roadside ditches,
pools, lakes, and various types of streams. This
lack of habitat preference is in direct contrast
to the condition mentioned with reference to
E. riojat.

Entocythere illinoisensis Hoff, 1942

Besides the Illinois localities for E. tllinoisen-
sis given in the writer’s paper of 1942, this
rather infrequent species is now known from
two localities in Arkansas. Near Casa, Perry
County, Ark., a collection of 11 individuals of
Orconectes longimanus (Faxon) produced sev-
eral ostracods of the species HE. tllinoisensis in
association with several specimens of E. riojav.
The collection was made from a swiftly flowing
stream on June 17, 1942. A second collection of
E. illinoisensts was made on the same date
from a small stream near Ivesville, Pulaski
County, Ark. Two individuals, one male and
one female, of this species were obtained from a
collection of the crayfishes Orconectes meeki
(Faxon) (males slightly atypical) and Cam-
barus blandingii acutus (Girard). Also in this
collection were large numbers of Entocythere
copiosa.

Like E. riojai, the present species favors
stream habitats and in most cases has been
collected from streams where there is consider-
able current. This is shown not only by the
present records but also by the several previous
records (Hoff, 1942).

In the collection from near Ivesville, Ark.,
the female agrees in detail with type speci-
mens, but the male is somewhat atypical,
since the pronounced knob or projection on the
convex side of the ‘“‘clasping appendage”’ of the
male copulatory organ is greatly reduced. The
‘“‘clasping appendage’ is otherwise not ab-
normal, resembling in detail typical indi-
viduals of EF. alinotsensis. The modified ‘‘clasp-
ing appendage” of this atypical male to some
small degree resembles that of EH. cambaria
Marshall 1903, but other body structures are
certainly not those of EH. cambaria. For the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

present, until more material can be procured,
this specimen will be assigned to EH. illinotsen-
sts. Upon the acquisition of additional material,
it will be possible to show either that this one
individual is abnormal or that a new species or
subspecies is represented.

SUMMARY

1. Two species of the genus Entocythere,
E. riojai from Illinois and Arkansas and
E. humesi from New York, are described as
new.

2. Locality records extending the geo-
graphical ranges of #. copiosa and FE. illi-
noisensis are given.

3. E. riojai and E. illinorsensis have been
found to occur only on crayfishes from smail
streams where there is considerable current.
E. copiosa apparently does not show any
habitat preference.

LITERATURE CITED

DospBIN, CATHERINE N. Fresh-water Ostra-
coda from Washington and other western

localities. Univ. Washington Publ. Biol.
4:174-246. 1941.
Horr, C. Cuayton. The subfamily Ento-

cytherinae, a new subfamily of fresh-water
cytherid Ostracoda, with descriptions of two
new species of the genus Entocythere.
Amer. Midl. Nat. 27: 63-73. 1942.

Kurz, W. Campagne spéologique de C. Bolwar
et R. Jeannel dans l Amérique du Nord
(1928). 3, Crustacés ostracodes. Arch.
Zool. Exp. Gén. 71: 333-344. 1931.

MarsHALL, WILLIAM 8. Entocythere cam-
baria (nov. gen. et nov. spec.), a parasitic
ostracod. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 14:
117-144. 1903.

Paris, P. Ostracods (premiére série). Arch.
Zool. Exp. Gén. 58: 475-487. 1920.
Riosa, Enrique. Morfologia de un ostrdcodo
epizoario observado sobre Cambarus (Cam-
barellus) montezumae Sauss. de Mézxico,
Entocythere heterodonta n. sp. y descrip-
cién de algunos de sus estados larvarios.
Anal. Inst. Biol. México 11: 593-609.

1940.

Descripcién de una especie y una sub-
especie nuevas del genero Entocythere
Marshall, procedentes de la Cueva Chica
(San Luis Potosi, México). Ciencia 3
201-204. 1942.

Sars, G.O. Freshwater Ostracoda from Canada
and Alaska. Report Canadian Arctic
Expedition, 1913-1918, 7: 1-22. 1926.

Sept. 15, 19438

OBITUARIES

287

@bituaries

WILL1AM ALBERT HorrMan, head of the de-
partment of parasitology in the School of
Tropical Medicine, San Juan, Puerto Rico,
died on April 4, 1943. Born in Jersey City,
N. J., April 18, 1894, he obtained his B.S. de-
gree at Cornell University (1917) and his Sc.D.
at Johns Hopkins University in 1924. After
teaching entomology and zoology at Iowa State
College from 1917 to 1918, he was associated
with the U. 8S. Department of Agriculture until
1920, and then served a year as assistant en-
tomologist to the State of New York. While at
Johns Hopkins (1921-24) he was assistant in
medical entomology and, upon graduation, was
sent by the Rockefeller Foundation to Haiti as
medical entomologist in a survey of that re-
public. In 1926 he joined the newly founded
School of Tropical Medicine and was delegated
to organize its department of parasitology, with
which he was closely identified until his death.

While in Haiti, Professor Hoffman was par-
ticularly interested in the anophelines of the
region. In Puerto Rico he clarified and defined
the epidemiology, distribution, and biology of
schistosomiasis as found there. Some of his in-
vestigations on the biology of schistosomes
were carried out in close collaboration with
Dr. Ernest C. Faust. Among the important
findings relating to this parasite were the ex-
perimental proof of the snail species that serves
locally as the intermediate host, improvement
of concentration methods in searching for ova
in the feces, refinement of experimental means
of inoculation of animals with cercariae, and, in
collaboration with Dr. W. H. Taliaferro, de-
velopment of a highly promising skin test. He
also contributed to our knowledge of filariasis
and Fasciola hepatica and to the biology of sev-
eral parasites of domestic animals.

Hoffman’s main interest, however, was in the
field of taxonomic entomology. As an outstand-
ing authority on the Ceratopogonidae he was
widely consulted on problems of identification;
he described several new species of Culicoides
and, with the late Dr. Francis M. Root, pub-
lished a review of the North American species
of that genus. His listed publications number
about 60, including important sections in Wol-
cott’s Entomologie d’ Haiti and Gay’s Aspects of
disease and host resistance. He belonged to sev-
eral scientific societies.

Professor Hoffman will be remembered by a
wide circle of admirers and friends not only for
his scientific accomplishments but also for his
rare ability to inspire enthusiasm in all who
worked near him; for his unstinted generosity
toward those who needed a helping hand; for
his devotion to the art of music; and for the
humble simplicity and almost ascetic austerity
of his life.

RIcHARD Fay JACKSON, senior chemist, Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, died at his home
in Chevy Chase, Md., on June 1, 1943. He was
born in Dorchester, Mass. on January 2, 1881.
He attended the Boston Latin School and
Harvard University, receiving the degree of
A.B. (magna cum laude) from the latter in
1903 and the Ph.D. degree in 1917 from the
same institution. Upon the completion of his
undergraduate work at Harvard, Dr. Jackson
served as research assistant at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology from 1905 to 1907. He
entered the Government service on October 1,
1907, as laboratory assistant in the Polarimetry
Section, National Bureau of Standards.

An enthusiastic and painstaking worker in
the field of sugar chemistry, Dr. Jackson di-
rected his researches into the investigations of
problems dealing with the physical properties
of the sugars and to the development of new
and improved methods of their preparation,
purification, and estimation. He made exten-
sive studies of the sugars, sucrose, dextrose,
and levulose, and his many articles on their
physical and chemical properties received in-
ternational recognition. In recognition of his
contributions on levulose, the Washington Sec-
tion of the American Chemical Society awarded
him the Hillebrand prize in 1925, Dr. Jackson
being the first recipient of this honor. His
phase-rule studies of the system lead acetate,
lead oxide, and water and the system dextrose,
levulose, and water have been accepted as au-
thoritative. His studies on the preparation and
hydrolysis of inulin led to his discovery of three
new crystalline difructose anhydrides among
the products of hydrolysis.

Dr. Jackson was an untiring worker in the
affairs of the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists, serving for many years as associate
referee on reducing-sugar methods and for the
past several years as general referee on sugar

288

and sugar products. He was a member of the
International Commission for Uniform Meth-
ods of Sugar Analysis and contributed gen-
erously of its efforts.

Dr. Jackson was a member of the American
Chemical Society, the Washington Academy of
Sciences, the American Institute of Chemists
(fellow), and the Chemists Club of New York.

CarL F. SNYDER

WILLIAM ALBERT SETCHELL, algologist, plant
geographer, and chairman of the Department
of Botany of the University of California for
nearly 40 years, died in Berkeley, Calif., on
April 5, 1948. He was born in Norwich, Conn.,
on April 15, 1864. As an undergraduate at Yale
University, his boyhood interest in biology
and especially cryptogamic botany was stimu-
lated primarily by D. C. Eaton. After matricu-
lation young Setchell was enabled to continue
his work in botany, under W. G. Farlow, at
Harvard, where he was awarded the doctorate
in 1890. He returned to Yale as an assistant but
was soon attracted to Berkeley.

The series of papers on the marine algae of
the Pacific coast of North America by Setchell
and N. L. Gardner contain probably his best
known writings. Although a fully competent
taxonomist, he never regarded classification as
a final goal but was always more deeply inter-
ested in the “dynamic aspects” of biology—a
point of view that he vigorously encouraged in
his students. From this study of the algae of
North America, he was led to investigate the
marine flora of other Pacific areas. An associa-
tion with the Carnegie Institution of Washing-
ton permitted Professor and Mrs. Setchell to
make a series of trips to the Pacific islands,
Australia, New Zealand, eastern Asia, and
South Africa. These travels were designed pri-
marily to facilitate investigation of the nature
of reef-formation but they also aroused or aug-
mented his interest in ethnobotany, insular
endemism, trans-oceanic migration, and the
classical problems of plant distribution from a
possible ‘‘antarctic”’ center.

Geobotany—which he defined as a synthesis
of the distributional, ecological, and genetic or
historical phases of the study of taxonomic

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 9

entities and associational groupings— attracted
nearly as much of his attention as did taxo-
nomic study of cryptogamic plants. He liked to
emphasize the importance of occasional chance
dissemination of germules by normal agencies
and was loathe to accept the promiscuous
shifting of poles and continents or the rise and
fall of land bridges to explain distributional
patterns. .

From a study of temperature effects on the
development of algae and marine flowering
plants, he became interested in the tempera-
ture thresholds in the life cycle of flowering land
plants. He devoted particular attention to cer-
tain of the hypogeous fungi and to the morphol-
ogy of the Balanophoraceae. He was the
instigator of the important genetic investi-
gations on Nicottana extended by R. HE. Clau-
sen and T. H. Goodspeed and their students.
His published scientific contributions, dating
from 1883 to 1943, embrace about 150 titles.

Professor Setchell was a member of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences, the Washington
Academy of Sciences, and of the American
Philosophical Society; a fellow of the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American
Geographical Society, the Torrey Botanical
Club, and the California Academy of Sciences;
a sustaining member of the California Botani-
cal Society; and a member of the Linnaean So-
ciety of London, as well as of many other
scientific organizations, both in this country
and abroad.

His students remember him as a stimulating
if unorthodox teacher. His wealth of experience
and observation and the diversity of his inter-
ests, combined with a keen critical judgment,
enabled him to digress interestingly in any di-
rection. He took a particularly warm interest
in the education and personal life of many
young students, the informal and populous
“Order of Nieces and Nephews,”’ whose mem-
bers are to be found all over the world. Despite
the number and excellence of his written con-
tributions to science, it may well be that his
influence on their careers and lives will out-
weigh all his other accomplishments.

LINCOLN CONSTANCE

CONTENTS
; ea
PALEONTOLOGY. —Je efferson’ s contribution to paleontology.
ON Brown. eee

PALEONTOLOGY. —A revision a the genus Steganoerinus,

Borany.—Ten new American Asteraceae 8. BE Biaxe.. nF

OBITUARIES: WILLIAM ALBERT HorrMan;,
WituiAM ALBERT SETCHELL.

2 jena er jualin A ies Coreen Ayia

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JOURNAL

OF THE

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DORFF, Warren, Pa.

Among the few descendants of the famous

“old chief still living on the Cornplanter

Grant in Warren County, Pa. (Deardorff,

1941), Willie Gordon, inveterate trapper
and renowned bear hunter, and Lydia

Bucktooth, his neighbor, remember going

- after squabs to the beechwood groves south

of Sheffield where the passenger pigeons
(Hctopistes migratorius) were last reported
to be nesting. Others—Windsor Pierce and
Ezra Jacobs—remember hearing the old-

sters tell about these expeditions, but they

were too young to go along. At Coldspring,
above the State Line, is the conservative
community of the Allegheny Band of Sen-

~ eca: Alice White remembers that when she

>
bE

was a little girl her parents joined a party
of families that made an expedition to the

‘pigeon roosts at some place below Warren;

and Chauncey Johnny John, although born
at Cattaraugus Reservation, N. Y., and not
so old as some others, had been on several

such hunts when quite young. Evidently,
among the Seneca such trips to the pigeon
_ roosts were a regular event in the annual
round of getting a living.

That this custom comes down from ear-

lier days with every likelihood that it is pre-
- Columbian is indicated by the narratives of
early travelers. Since the passenger pigeon
- was one of the most abundant birds, if not

the most abundant in North America, it is
not unreasonable to assume that the In-

_ dians had long depended upon its annual

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

pte Smithsonian Institution. Received June 8,
— 1948.

OcTOBER 15, 1943

No. 10

_ETHNOLOGY.—The last passenger pigeon hunts of the Cornplanter Senecas.*
WiuuiaM N. Fenton, Bureau of American Ethnology, and Mertz H. DEaAR-

““Perhaps again one will say, ‘Now once again they are nesting’.”’

return to the nesting grounds, where they
procured the squabs in great numbers to
supplement their diet; in fact, at this season
of the year it seems to have constituted the
principal part of the food supply.

EARLY REFERENCES
Netting

The Relations of 1656-57 of the first Jes-
uit mission to the Onondaga remark how
the pigeons gather in the spring at the salt
springs adjacent to Onondaga Lake in such
numbers that they are taken in nets..
“that sometimes as many as seven hundred
are caught in the course of one morning.”
(Jesuit Relations, vol. 48, p. 153; see also
Le Mercier’s Relation of the previous year.)
In the Cayuga country, where the game was
so plentiful that 1,000 deer were killed in a
single season, Father Raffeix (1671), re-
porting on the Mission of St. Joseph at
Gotoguen [Cayuga], says: ‘‘Fish—salmon, as
well as eels and other kinds—are as plenty
here as at Onnontagué [Onondaga]. Four
leagues [12 miles] from here I saw by the
side of a river, within a very limited space,
eight or ten extremely fine salt springs.
Many snares are set there for catching
pigeons, from seven to eight hundred being
often taken at once.” (J. R., vol. 56, p. 49.)

Further evidence that the Onondaga net-
ted passenger pigeons at the famous salt
springs is found in Pehr Kalm’s monograph
(1759), which contains the following de-
scription of the activity:

I have also observed that the pigeons have a
special fondness for the kind of soil which is

289

OCT G 43

290

much mixed with common salt; this soil serves
them as food, as a spice to blend with the food,
or for its medical properties, I do not know
which. At the salt springs of Onondago [szc],.. .
where the soil is so strongly mixed with salt that
the ground during a severe drought becomes en-
tirely covered with it and as white as frost, mak-
ing it impossible for plants to grow, I noticed
with astonishment, in the month of August,
1750, how covetous the pigeons were of this kind
of soil. The savages in Onondago had built their
huts on the sides of this salt field, and here they
had erected sloping nets with a cord attachment
leading to the huts where they were sitting; when
the pigeons arrived in swarms to eat of this salty
soil, the savages pulled the cords, inclosing them
in the net, and thus at once secured the entire
flock. At certain times, when they come in such
numbers that the ground could hardly be seen
for them, the savages found it more advisable to
use a gun, as by a single discharge-of bird-shot
they could sometimes kill as many as 50 or more;
and this proved a splendid source of food supply.
(Kalm, 1912, p. 415. See also ‘“‘A Bibliography of
Peter Kalm’s Writings on America,” in Kalm,
1937, p. 774.)

Although it would appear from these ac-
counts, and one other by Pierre Boucher
which follows, that the Iroquois from early
times had used nets for taking pigeons,
whether their use was learned from the white
men remains an open question. Pierre
Boucher, in his ‘‘true and genuine descrip-
tion of New France’’ in the seventeenth cen-
tury, says: ‘There are birds of another kind
called wild pigeons.... There are pro-
digious numbers of them . . . they are to be
found everywhere in this country. The Iro-
quois take them in nets as they fly, some-
times by 300 or 400 at a time.’”?

The two accounts by Boucher and Kalm
sound rather as if the Indians originated the
idea of netting pigeons, but Mitchell points
out that the English colonists of Massachu-
setts took them in nets about 1660 and had
done so for some time previously, according
to John Josselyn.

Eye-witness accounts of the Seneca net-
ting and snaring pigeons are scarce, if not
lacking, in the literature. Morgan, who
worked mainly with Seneca informants at
Tonawanda circa 1850, says: “‘Nets of bark

2 MONTIZAMBERT, Epwarp Louis, Canada in
the seventeenth century. Being a translation of a
true and genuine description of New France, by
Pierre Boucher. Paris, 1664, p. 43. Montreal, 1883,
ain Mitchell, 1935, p. 119.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

and twine were... spread for pigeons and
quails.””’ And he describes a simple bird
snare, formerly much used against blue jays
that came for corn, which might have been
used on single pigeons with great effect.
(Morgan, 1901, vol. 2, p. 24.)

The Cayuga evidently set nets for pi-
geons on high places. The nets are said to
have been made of twine from swamp milk-
weed fiber, basswood, or slippery-elm bast.
The net (gada’qy’dakwa’) was spread be-
tween two upright sticks, and the netter sat
back at some distance holding one end,
waiting for a high wind to blow the pigeons
into it, when he would pull the net. The
folk-tale of “the foolish nephew,” in which
this information occurs, does not disclose
how the netted pigeons were killed, but they
were tied in bunches to take home. When
the hero and his uncle reached home they
plucked the feathers, spitted the birds on
sticks, roasted them beside the fire, and
dried them for later use.*

In later times professional pigeoners set
out similar nets without any tripping de-
vice on high bluffs along Lake Ontario.
That this practice was probably in use
among the Cayugas of the region is indi-
cated by their folk-lore and by the authori-
ties already cited.

Raiding Nests for Squabs

Historical accounts of Seneca pigeon
hunts sustain the statements of informants
that when the squabs were ready to leave
the nest the nesting-trees were felled and
the fattened squabs were taken by hand and
killed and gutted for smoking and drying
before packing them home.

The Gilbert Narrative of the sufferings of
a Pennsylvania family during their captiv- -
ity among the Senecas, 1780-83, tells how
Benjamin Gilbert, Jr., was adopted into the
family of a Seneca chief who settled on Buf-
falo Creek; and, being considered the
‘“‘King’s’”’ successor, Benjamin was entirely
freed from restraint and permitted to go
fishing and hunting with his Indian con-
temporaries. In the spring of 1781— _

3 Coox, Exvias (Cayuga), ‘““Grand River Re-
serve (Canada) (1918),” in F. W. Waugh,

Iroquois folk-lore (MS.), Notebook 5, p. 40 ff.
National Museum of Canada.

Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

the whole Family moved about six Miles up
Lake Erie [near Big Tree] where they staid about
two Months to gather their annual Store of
Maple Sugar, of which they made a considerable
Quantity.

As soon as the Season of this Business was over,
they returned to their old Settlement [on Buffalo
Creek], where they had not continued long, be-
fore an Indian came with an Account that an
astonishing Number of young Pigeons might be
procured at a certain Place, by falling Trees that
were filled with Nests of young, and the Distance
was computed to be about fifty Miles: This In-
formation delighted the several Tribes; they
speedily joined together, young and old, from dif-
ferent Parts, and with great Assiduity pursued
their Expedition, and took Abundance of the
young ones, which they dried in the Sun and with
Smoke, and filled several Bags which they had
taken with them for this Purpose. Benjamin Gil-
bert was permitted to accompany them on this
Excursion, which must have been a curious one
for whole Tribes to be engaged in. On this Rarety
they lived with extravagance for some Time, far-
ing sumptuously every Day. (Severance, 1904,
pp. 15—116.)

It was probably the same hunt that Ho-
ratio Jones and his Indian foster parents
attended. They had gone down from Niag-
ara and Buffalo Creek to the Allegheny
River to visit Cornplanter, his mother’s
brother, when a runner came in shouting,
“YVu-ak-oo-was, yu-ak-oo-was!” [jah’gowa’-
son’on] (‘‘Pigeons, pigeons!’’) [‘‘Big breads,”
or passenger pigeons.]| He said the birds had
roosted in a wood on the Genesee River,
about two days’ journey above Caneadea
village.

All was now bustle and confusion, and every
person in the village who could bear the fatigue
of travel at once set out for the Genesee. On their
arrival at the place designated by the runner,
Jones beheld a sight that he never forgot. The
pigeons, in numbers too great to estimate, had
made their temporary homes in a thick forest.
Each tree and branch bore nests on every avail-
able spot. The birds had exhausted every species
of nesting material in the vicinity, including the
small twigs of the trees, and the ground was as
bare as though swept with a broom. The eggs were
hatching and thousands of squabs filled the nests.
Every morning the parent birds rose from the
roosts, the noise of their wings sounding like con-
tinuous rolls of distant thunder, as flock after
flock soared away to obtain food. A little before
noon they began to return to feed their young;
then arose a deafening chorus of shrill cries as the
awkward younglings stood up in the nests with
wide open mouths. ... Soon after noon the old
birds departed again to return about sunset,

291

when they came in such dense flocks as to darken
the woods. All night long the sound of breaking
branches caused by overloading the roosts, and
the whirring and fluttering of falling birds trying
to regain their foothold, disturbed the usual
silence of the forest.

As the annual nesting of the pigeons was a
matter of great importance to the Indians, who
depended largely [?] on the supply of food thus
obtained, runners carried the news to every part
of the Seneca country, and the inhabitants singly
and in bands, came from as far east as Seneca
Lake and as far north as Lake Ontario. Within a
few days several hundred men, women, and chil-
dren gathered in the locality of the pigeon
woods....

For their temporary accommodation the people
erected ... huts constructed by setting up two
crotched stakes on top of which a pole was laid.
Other poles were placed against the ridge, three
or four on each side, with the lower ends resting
on the ground. One or two poles were then tied
across the others parallel with the ridge-pole and
to these were fastened long over-lapping sheets of
bark forming tent-shaped huts with one open end
that was closed at night by curtains of skins and
blankets. This form of cabin was easily erected in
a short time, and afforded a fair shelter to the
occupants during the brief period of their stay.

The Indians cut down the roosting-trees to
secure the birds, and each day thousands of
squabs were killed. Fires were made in front of the
cabins and bunches of the dressed birds were
suspended on poles sustained by crotched sticks,
to dry in the heat and the smoke. When properly
cured they were packed in bags or baskets for
transportation to the home towns. It was a festi-
val season .. . and even the meanest dog in camp
had his fill of pigeon meat. (Harris, 1903, pp.
449-450.)

No one missed the annual fun at the pi-
geon roosts if he could possibly get there.
That year “forty warriors on their way
from Niagara southward, halted... for a
few days to enjoy the sport and obtain a
supply of cured birds for food on their jour-
ney”’ (zbid., p. 450); and there were a dozen
or more white captives in the encampment.
Marriages were evidently sometimes con-
tracted at the pigeon roosts, for it was at
one of these rendezvous near the shores of
Seneca Lake, where the Indians assembled
annually for days and weeks together, that
Sarah Whitmore in 1782, at the time of her
proposed marriage to a Mohawk chief, met
Horatio Jones, who succeeded his Indian
rival. “The young birds were fat and juicy
and were devoured in large numbers; while
the squaws smoked great quantities of them

292

for future use. Consequently, with the In-
dians, the ‘Pigeon Roost’ was synonymous
of a feast and dance, and especially of a
council.’”’ (Gunn, 1903, p. 517.)

Moreover, on occasion the serious busi-
ness of a council was set. aside so that the
people could go after squabs. In May of
1791, while Col. Thomas Proctor was at
Buffalo Creek holding councils with the Iro-
quois, seeking to get some of them to ac-
company him to the tribes on the Wabash
River, the Senecas invited him to watch
them gather pigeons:

May 6. Red Jacket and Captain O’Beel came
to see me, when the former acquainted me with
the reason why no council would be held this
day, to wit: That it was their pigeon time, in
which the Great Spirit had blessed them with an
abundance; and that such was his goodness to
the Indians that he never failed sending them
season after season, and although it might seem
a small matter to me, the Indians wiil never lose
sight of those blessings. This is, therefore, the
reason why our men, women, and children, are
gone from their towns, but on tomorrow our
headmen will return and your business again
shall be taken up. ’Tis a matter worthy of ob-
servation, that at some convenient distance from
every one of the Indian settlements, the pigeons
hatch their young in this season of the year, and
the trees, which they commonly light on, are low
and of the bushy kind, and they are found in such
great abundance, that exceeding a hundred nests,
a pair of pigeons in each are common to be found
in a single tree, so that I have seen in one house,
belonging to one family, several large baskets full
of dead squabs; these they commonly take when
they are just prepared to leave the nests, and as
fat as possible for them to be made; when after
they are plucked and cleansed a little, they are
preserved by smoke and laid by for use. (Proctor,
1896, p. 497.)

Feasts and Festivals

Pigeon time evidently coincided with one
of the periodic festivals when the Iroquois
invariably returned thanks for an abundant
flight of pigeons. Pigeon time came soon
after the maple harvest; and it is notewor-
thy in the modern Seneca Maple Festival,
as it 1s still celebrated toward the end of
March at Tonawanda, that Pigeon Dance
regularly leads off the social dances (Fen-
ton, 1941).

Likewise, Proctor himself found the
Senecas in a festival mood. On the third of
May, several days before he witnessed the
pigeon hunt, Proctor went out to the Onon-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 10

daga settlement, three miles east of Buf-
falo, to honor an invitation to dine with the
principal chief of the Onondaga. He re-
marks how well the women were dressed in
silken stroud and ornamented with many —
silver trappings, and says that the feast
‘principally consisted of young pigeons,
some boiled, some stewed, and the mode of
dishing them was, that a hank of six were
tied with a deer’s sinew around their necks,
their bills pointing outwards; they were
plucked but of pen feathers [sze] [pin- |
feathers (Ketchum)] there plenty remained;
the inside was taken out, but it appeared
from the soup made of them, that water
had not touched them before. The repast
being the best I had seen for a long time, I
ate of it very heartily, and the entertain-
ment was given with the appearance of
much hospitality.”’ (Proctor, 1896, p. 497.)
The Iroquois apparently considered their
own feasts and religious exercises of equal
importance with Proctor’s business, and be-
tween such delays and those caused by the—
British commandants, Proctor lost an equal
amount of time. Cornplanter assembled the
chiefs on May 7 to allot planting grounds to
tribes and families who had put themselves
under the protection of the Six Nations; and

the great dance which was performed the

next afternoon was presumably the Plant-
ing Festival or Seed Dance, which, it ap-
pears from Proctor’s journal, was then of
four days’ duration, ending in a general
community drunk.

Moreover, the Seneca religiously remem-
ber their obligation to the Creator for the
things which he annually sends them in
abundance by returning thanks in season,
and they also pray that this condition shall
continue always. In the old days they did
not trust to chance to conserve the supply —
of plants and animals on which they sub-
sisted, but they took some regular precau-
tions to insure their perpetuation. To this
day, when they take medicinal plants,
tobacco is offered at the first plant of
the desired species, which is then left to
grow to seed for ensuing years. Deer were
not taken at certain seasons; and the
Seneca say that they did not molest pigeon
hatcheries until the squabs were ready
to leave the nests, while the older birds

Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

were allowed-to go free. What is more,
the Senecas ascribed human qualities to
the pigeons, which alone of all the birds
nested in communities. It was customary
when they took their young to levy among
the hunters a collection of gifts such as
silver brooches, wampum, and articles of
apparel as an offering to propitiate the pi-
geons. These gifts were borne by a priest to
the wood’s edge beside the pigeon colony,
where he set them down and kindled a small
fire. On the embers of this fire he sprinkled
sacred tobacco (Nicotzana rustica L.), and it
is believed that the words of his invocation
were carried aloft on the smoke to the Crea-
tor and to the spirit-forces of the pigeons,
who were ordained to sustain the people
living on the earth. His voice alone carried
the entreaties of all the people, returning
thanks that the pigeons had once more
nested near their settlement and making
this offering in exchange for the squabs they
were about to take; and they prayed that
this privilege should continue always. As
late as 1896 aged Senecas living at Cattarau-
gus remembered this custom, which was
unknown to our informants, but which is
fully illustrated by a series of myths col-
lected by Hewitt that we shall return to
later.*

Conservation

Religious-minded individuals among the
Seneca could feel satisfied that the pigeons,
having smelled the tobacco and thinking
they had been thanked, would remain well
disposed; but there were undoubtedly more
practical individuals, like the savages
(Onondagas, Oneidas, and Mohawks) who
came under Peter Kalm’s observation, who

4 In 1870 Esquire Johnson, then in his nineties,
in an interview with Mrs. Ashur Wright, which
Parker, 1923, p. 424, has published, mentioned a
tobacco-smoke offering ‘‘to propitiate the pigeons
when they took their young, the offering of pay-
ment to the old ones,—a brass kettle or other
littte dish full of ot-go-ah [wampum], brooches,
and various other things which the man who raised
the smoke would deposit on the ground before he
put the tobacco on the fire, and he says that he
left the kettle there when they left home [?], con-
sidering it a real payment to the pigeons... . ”’
The prayer is said to have been the same as one
related elsewhere by Oliver Silverheels, which is
lost. (A. C. Parker, p. c.)

293

made sure the annual pigeon-flock increase
was not endangered by pre-season hunting.
Kalm says:

While these birds are hatching their young or
while the latter are not yet able to fly, the sav-
ages or Indians in North America are in the habit
of never shooting or killing them, nor of allowing
others to do so, pretending that it would be a
great pity on their young, which would in that
case have to starve to death. Some of the French-
men [presumably those Kalm met in 1749 enroute
from the Hudson River to Montreal, when im-
mense flocks of pigeons were encountered] told me
that they had set out with the intention of shoot-
ing some of them at that season of the year, but
that the savages had at first with kindness en-
deavored to dissuade them from such purpose,
and later added threats to their entreaties when
the latter were of no avail. (Kalm, 1912, p. 412.)

Archery

Of the ancient Iroquoians, at least the
Huron (J.R., vol. 10, p. 143), Seneca, and
Cayuga pursued the adult pigeons in the
woods and shot them with bow and arrows.
In a Cayuga folk-tale, ‘““The Mischievous
Uncle and the Boy Wizard,” the hero twice
shoots a single arrow through a row of pi-
geons sitting on the same limb, getting a
great string of birds both times (Waugh,
MS.). The Senecas formerly used bows and
arrows to shoot pigeons on the wing, and
the great nestings were sometimes the oc-
easion of intertribal archery contests, ac-
cording to “‘Antler,’”’ an anonymous author
who witnessed these trials during the first
third of the last century when the Six Na-
tions, as in Proctor’s day, were still in
possession of Buffalo Creek. Detailed infor-
mation on how the Iroquois tempered hick-
ory and ashen bows with hot oil, on how
bow strings were made, and on the use of
blunt-headed arrows in taking birds and
small game lends credence to this record. Al-
though in retrospect the immensity of the
nesting may be exaggerated, nevertheless
the pigeon grounds must have been exten-
sive to cover the townships mentioned and
to provide hunting for the several bands of
Senecas concentrated there. ‘“‘Antler’’ writes:

During my boyhood days I lived in close
proximity to a tribe of Indians of whom I took
my first lessons in the use of the bow, and subse- -
quently became much attached to that kind of
sport. Partridges, wild pigeons, squirrels and
numerous small fry fell victims to my aim....

294

The bows which the Indians used in early
days (say fifty or sixty years ago) were made of
white ash or hickory, worked out of seasoned
timber and washed over at different times with
hot oil. They became impervious to water and
and retained the natural strength and supple-
ness. However plenty hickory and ash trees may
be, there are comparatively few which are of the
quality which is required to make a good bow.
The strings were made of a single strand of raw
hide evenly cut and slightly twisted and made
perfectly round by rolling, being about the size
of common fence wire and apparently about as
hard. Blunt-headed arrows were used for killing
birds and small game, and were invariably used
among the wild pigeon roosts and nesting
grounds.

Among the happiest recollections of these latter
days are those that carry me back to boyhood
sport among the wild pigeons. Reader, have you
ever visited the nesting grounds of wild pigeons?

.. one of the wonders in natural history. The
first and most extensive nesting grounds that I
visited was in the western part of the State of
New York as early as 1823. The nesting began in
Cattaraugus County, near the Allegheny River,
reaching north to the town of Collins, Erie
County, covering a section of country about 30
miles in length and supposed to average 6 miles in
width, including a part of all the following towns:
South Valley, Coldspring, Napoli, New Albion,
Dayton and Towanda [?], most of which have
been organized and settled long since the date
mentioned. Here was an area estimated at 180
square miles, covered with a thick growth of
timber, every tree bearing from one to 50 nests,
according to size of top. ... I enjoyed the satis-
faction of rambling through this enormous hatch-
ery. ...I was a youngster at the time... [this
was the biggest nesting he recollected]. ... None
but large and extensive forests, with an over-
abundance of beech mast, could support such a
vast body of pigeons during the time of building,
hatching and feeding which lasts 6 or 7 weeks,
more or less. The building begins about the first
of April, or before. ...The nest consists of a
bunch of dry twigs and sticks which seem to be
slightly thrown together, yet ...so strongly and
ingeniously connected with the branches that
winds and storms cannot dislodge them.

... It was seldom that more than one young
pigeon was raised on a single nest, but occasion-
ally two were found. During the time of building
and hatching, the mast on the hatching grounds
would be mostly consumed, consequently the
old birds were compelled to forage for long dis-
tances to collect food while feeding their young;
and... [each pair is able to return to its own
nest], which is the counterpart of thousands... .

Perhaps there is nothing that will draw out a
whole tribe of Indians, old and young, like a
pigeon hatchery. The flesh of the young wild
pigeons is fat and juicy and fine flavored, and
doubtless a young pigeon is the sweetest and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

daintiest morsei that ever tickled an Indian’s
palate. Here were gathered at different points
most of the natives, old and young, from three or
four tribes of Indians. Here the best archers from
the Buffalo, Cattaraugus, and Alleghany reserva-
tions had met for a trial of skill. I am not well
posted in the scores of modern times, but it was
then and there that I saw greater feats of archery
than I ever witnessed before or since.

It seems that the Seneca nation of Indians have
wholly or nearly abandoned the use of the bow,
save among the small boys.—ANTLER. Piney
Falls, Jan. 13th. (‘‘Antler,’”’ 1880, p. 14.)

CORNPLANTER PIGEON HUNTS

Taken together with the previous histori-
cal records, the following narrative accounts
of pigeon hunts that live in the memory of
old Cornplanter residents assume some im-
portance for local history in western New
York and Pennsylvania. It is, however, the
wider implication of the facts contained in
these narratives that will interest students
of Iroquois ethnology, since they demon-
strate a continuity of custom coming down
from early times to the recent past that
broadens our understanding of the economy
of these woodland tribes. These accounts,
too, illustrate some Indian attitudes toward
conservation, revealing a set of values at
odds with the ‘‘pioneer spirit” of our fore-
bears.

Scouting the Pigeon Nestings

“Early in March or April,” said Willie
Gordon whose Indian name is gak’j7’,
“‘dishful,”’ “‘we would see the jah’gowa, ‘big
bread’ (passenger pigeon) flying north in
flocks so large that their numbers darkened
the sky and their wings sounded as thunder.
They came as a plague of locusts and de-
voured every sprouting plant. They would
nest in patches of beechwood timber where
they flocked to eat the beechnuts.”’

Informants agree with authorities that —
the passenger pigeons could be seen going
over in March at the end of the sugar sea-

son, before the snow was off the ground

(Todd, 1940, p. 267). |

Under date of April 15, 1822, Joseph El-
kinton, first teacher at the Friends’ Indian
School at Tunesassa (Quaker Bridge, N.Y.),
noted in his diary that no pupils showed up
for school that day. He supposed they had
gone with their parents to hunt pigeons.

Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

School reopened on May 7. It appears that
thereafter school was regularly closed for
the sugar-making and pigeon season.

People knew that in about two weeks
from the time they nested the eggs would
hatch, and so the word went about. Lydia
Bucktooth, whom Marsh Pierce—‘‘a very
bossy man’’—used to call niga’negagz'sa’a,
“little soup,’ said that there was no partic-
ular organization to the hunt at Corn-
planter—‘“‘one man said to another, ‘Let’s
go,’ and he said the same to somebody else;
and so everyone went who could possibly go
because the pigeon hunt was a good time—
just like a fair or picnic.”’

In the old days decisions regarding move-
ments of the band rested with the chiefs,
and group economic activities that involved
abandoning the village in large numbers
usually followed a decision of the council.
And so when the pigeons flew over in March
scouts were sent out to follow them to the
nesting grounds. These scouts stayed per-
haps a month, as it took the pigeons a while
to build sketchy nests; two weeks to hatch
the young; and then a period for the young
to grow. At this point the scouts returned to
the chiefs with sample squabs. Estimates
were made as to the time when the squabs
would be ripe; and then the whole com-
munity started. The object was to take the
squabs when they were at their best: at the
point just before they were ready to leave
the nest.°

On matters of formality Cornplanter
Senecas bow to their neighbors upriver in
York State, where the conservative long-
house people of Coldspring keep up the old
ways. And in the matter of scouting the pi-
geon roosts Chauncey Johnny John did not
fail us with details. He said: “In spring
when the pigeons flew over on their way to
hadinonhgwa’ee’, their roosts (pigeon nest-
ing grounds) [literally, their habitat], the
chiefs would send out scouts to follow them
and find out where they alighted. Pigeons
_ According to Todd (p. 269), the incubation
period was two weeks, and the young were ready
to leave the nest in another two weeks. ‘‘They
became very fat and weighed almost as much as
the old birds.”’ Cf. Forbush, 1936, pp. 39-46. It
is remarkable how well the testimony of these

old Senecas stands up in comparison with the
facts as established by ornithologists.

295

made nests in all kinds of trees: ti.e nests
were just a few sticks laid together—worse
than a crow’s nest; they laid one or two
eggs. When the nest had been made and
the eggs laid and hatched, the scouts would
bring back a few samples of the newly
hatched squabs to the chiefs, telling them
where the pigeons nested. The chiefs would
examine the squabs and say, ‘two weeks’ or
‘three weeks’—meaning it would be that
long until the squabs were ready to take.
During this time the old pigeons would fly
away every day to get food. There were so
many of them that they soon used up the
food about the nesting place; so they would
fly off to the fields and particularly to the
beechwoods in all directions. Later, when
the buckwheat and other seeds sprouted,
they would raid the fields.”’

Windsor Pierce remembers being sta-
tioned at the buckwheat fields with a shot-
gun to shoo away the pigeons, and Willie
Gordon said, ‘“‘As soon as it was discovered
where they were nesting, the scouts would
pass this way (through Cornplanter) say-
ing, ‘Onenh gyon’ a’ jah’gowa dyodinonh-
gwa’ee’’ (Now they say once again the big-
bread [passenger pigeon] is nesting there).
People would know immediately when and
where to go, because dyodinonhgwa’ee’,
‘where they are nesting,’ or ganonh’gwaee’,
‘the pigeon nestings,’ was back of Sheffield
[in Forest County].”’

Migration to the Pigeon Grounds

The ancient ‘‘pigeon country” for these
Seneca was for the most part comprised of
the following northern counties of western
Pennsylvania: Warren, McKean and Pot-
ter, Elk, Cameron, Forest, and northern
Jefferson. These were also the old hunting
grounds of the Seneca. The watersheds of
Tionesta Creek and the Clarion River were
familiar to these Indians as favorite deer
and bear hunting grounds, and the pigeon
nesting mentioned in these accounts were
on the high plateaus toward their many

6 This is correct, according to some authorities,
although competent ornithologists are inclined to
regard one egg per female pigeon as the normal
yield per nesting, and the second egg may repre-
sent use of the same nest by a second female.
(A. Wetmore, p.c.)

296

heads. The hunt which Willie Gordon de-
scribes took place on the site of what is now
called Ox-Bow Hunting Camp, south of
Byromtown in Forest County, near the
heads of Blue Jay and Spring Creek. Now
much of the land where pigeons used to nest
is cleared for farms or is growing up again
in the huge half-million acre timber-farm
called Allegheny National Forest. In this
region the beech once flourished, and there
was a plentiful supply of food for the birds.

Willie Gordon says: ‘‘People would come
here from Cattaraugus and Coldspring by
wagon, and we would go off beyond Shef-
field to get the squabs. Families traveled in
box-wagons driving teams of oxen or horses,
if they had them; and the wagons were
heaped high with axes, guns, cooking uten-
sils, and children and with barrels or bark
casks for packing the squabs. Some of the
families from Cattaraugus [Reservation]
would stop overnight ‘where the bridge
[bank?] is steep’ (dwas’gwanezot) south of
Leon, N. Y. They reached dyo’neganoo,
‘Coldspring,’ the second night, and the
combined parties came down the river road
to Cornplanter. If they continued from here
by wagon, the shortest way leads up the
south fork of Hodge Run, ‘where the trail
comes down’ (djai’nhdon’), and one climbs
up on Quaker Hill and goes down again to
Glade, where they crossed over.”’

Alice White of Coldspring recalls that her
family passed “between the rocks”’ (degas’-
deogen’) on Quaker Hill, where—according
to the Gordons—travelers used to seek
shelter returning from Warren.

“When it was time to leave Coldspring,”
says Chauncey Johnny John, “everybody
packed up and went as he could. Some had
wagons; most hadn’t; so they went down
the river in boats or rafts to what they then
called Glade (just north of Warren Boro
limits). Here they left their boats with peo-
ple to watch them, and took off for the pi-
geon country.”

Routes to the Pigeon Country

Two main routes led from Cornplanter to
this “pigeon country.” One went via
Kinzua Creek to Dunkle’s Corner and Lud-
low, where one could take the train to Shef-
field. This was the route most commonly

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

used by the walkers. Those who came down
from Cornplanter on rafts, or over the hill
by wagon, went up Dutchman Run through
Clarendon to Sheffield, where the two routes
merged at least as far as Barnes. |

(A) From his home at Cornplanter he
crossed the Allegheny and walked to Kin-
zua, “‘fish on spear’’ (genzo’aa’), and fol-
lowed up Kinzua Creek to Dunkle’s
Corner, thence to Ludlow; from Ludlow he
took the Pennsylvania train to Sheffield; on
foot from Shefheld to Barnes; then to
Brookston, where the big tannery was, and
they turned off south west for Watson Farm
and on through to Pigeon (which is the
name of the post office, but the railroad sta-
tion is Frosts), and Byromtown. Here they
went a mile and a half south into the woods
to the site of the present Ox-bow Hunting
Camp. Formerly an old Scot named Cun-
ningham lived there. He was a miser, Willie
says, and he lived there in a log house and
raised some potatoes which he sold to the
Indians.

(B) From his home at Cornplanter, like
the majority of people from higher up the
river at Coldspring, he boated down to
Glade and walked in. Ascending Dutchman
Run, he went to Stoneham where he
camped the first night out. From Stoneham —
he went to Sheffield; and so on by the same
route as A. ate

Willie was able-accurately to retrace his
footsteps, remembering such landmarks as
the Brookston tannery and old man Cun-
ningham, the miser, who is also recalled by
Mrs. Maggie Frost (74), a native at Pigeon
or Frosts, whose recollections of the pigeon ©
nestings checked at every point with Wil-
lie’s. Lydia Bucktooth had no recollection
of the route, but she remembered very well
what took place when they reached the
camp. Informants agree that they always
went to the same place to camp.

Many Coldspring people hunted the
same grounds with the Cornplanters; but it
appears that others customarily camped —
several miles away on Blue Jay (di’’di’geh). —
Chauncey Johnny John says his party —
came down the river to Glade (dedye’hdtha’)

Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

297

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Fie. 1.—Routes to the Cornplanters’ pigeon country in northwestern Pennsylvania.

298

‘“‘where they turned off,’’ where the roads to
Kinzua and Kane fork. In retracing his
steps Chauncey directed us from Claren-
don, to Sheffield, to Barnes. There were no
Indian names for places enroute because the
Indians had never settled there. At Barnes
an improved road now turns off to the
right, following Tionesta Creek down to
Blue Jay and Lynch. It helps Chauncey’s
story to know that he declined to take this
road; and it has since been developed that it
was not in existence at the time he passed
that way to hunt pigeons. In the old days
they turned off farther along, on what is still
a dirt road. Chauncey remembered that two
or three families of deaf and dumb people
lived on the corner of this old road to
Henrys Mills, and later we found that the
descendants of these people (also deaf and
dumb) still hve there. From Henrys Mills
Chauncey’s party had gone down to Lynch,
where Blue Jay enters the Tionesta Creek.
Near the head of Blue Jay is Pigeon. Ac-
cording to Chauncey, the whole region from
Watsontown and Pigeon downhill to Lynch
was occupied by pigeon nestings. The In-
dians camped on Blue Jay flats because, as
Chauncey said, ‘‘the water was good.”’ He
thinks there were not so many nests on top
of the hills as there were on the slopes. His
locations check with all the stories as to
where pigeons nested in these parts.

There were doubtless other routes that
were followed to the pigeon nestings, de-
pending on where they had been reported
for that year. The trail down the Tionesta
from Barnes to Blue Jay followed lower
ground than did the route via Watson Farm
and Brookston. The road from Lynch to Pi-
geon was usually muddy. These considera-
tions no doubt also influenced the hunters,
the drier trails being preferred in wet sea-
sons.

Another big pigeon nesting ground, ac-
cording to the whites, was at Pine Camp 1 in
Elk County, which boul be reached by fol-
lowing the road from Barnes through
Brookston to Chaffee and on into the woods
about Pig’s Ear.

Organization of the Hunt

To say that the Seneca pigeon-hunting
expeditions were formally organized affairs

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10
would be an overstatement, for they do not
assume the formal aspects of the Buffalo
hunts of the Plains Indians. Yet, individual-
istic as the Senecas are, one can observe in
their behavior together a tendency to repeat
year after year certain traditional ways of
behaving, which become set forms observa-
ble as definite cultural patterns. People got
to the pigeon nestings any way they could,
as we have seen: Some boated down the
river and walked in, others went in wagons,
and still others went via Kinzua and Lud-
low and took the train to Sheffield, walking
the rest of the way. Most just went. Never-
theless, once they got together at the camp-
ing grounds, an organization came into be-
ing.

The hunting party from each locality was
sometimes in charge of a leader or headman
whom the families had appointed for the
duration of the hunt. He was selected for
qualities of character and leadership: he
must be a speaker (hazwano’ta’), one who
knows how to address an assembly, and he
must be a sober man to whom the people
look up. His duties were to order the line of
march, arranging the camp each night on
the road by assigning camping sites to the
families of his band. Every morning, ac-
cording to Alice White, before they broke
camp the leader would preach to the peo-
ple: First he returned thanks to our Maker
for all living things on earth and upward to-
ward the sky-world, and then he asked for
good luck on the day’s journey. Then he
urged the people to keep order. Again at
night when they had retired he would
preach to the camp, exhorting the adults to
avoid recrimination and sin and urging the
children to behave. Thus the Indians
camped along the way; they were in no
hurry to get there. ;

This tendency of the Iroquois peoples
whenever they are gathered in a group in-
evitably to select a speaker, who always be-
haves in this traditional way that is ex-
pected of him, is what is meant by “ob-
servable cultural patterns.’’ In this sense
the hunts were organized affairs.

The following incident related by Lydia
Bucktooth of Cornplanter as to what
prompted her family to join the hunters at
the nesting grounds on one occasion illus-

Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

trates their spontaneity. Lydia first went
with her parents when she was 6 or 7. Her
mother had been sick (she died when she
was 52), and her father said when word
came that the pigeons were nesting,
“Come on, you might as well go along and
see this once before you die.’”’ Although she
was sick, she went anyway. They canoed
down to Glade; then they traveled over the
hills—there was no road—taking a short-
cut to a place back of Sheffield, to the
‘place where the pigeons were nesting”’
(djoditnonhgwa'iee). (Lydia said that this
term, which literally means ‘‘the place of
their habitation or residence,’ hence
“roost,’”? means the whole pigeon-roost or
nesting grounds.)

The Carp: Lean-tos

When they arrived at the nesting grounds
lots of people were there, both white and
red. Lydia’s family made a camp for them-
selves which she described in some detail. It
was a lean-to, closed on three sides and
open only in front. It rested on posts, with
hemlock boughs laid on for a roof. She did
not say whether the posts were crotched to
support a ridge pole on which the rafters
were presumably laid. The fire was built out
in front. As far back under the side as possi-
ble a pile of hemlock boughs several feet
thick was laid as a bed, on which they slept.
(Lydia does not say whether they slept with
heads, sides, or feet toward the fire, but the
last seems to have been the usual orienta-
tion.) They stayed several weeks; and sleep-
ing under the lean-to on a hemlock bed did
her mother so much good that “‘it cured her
of consumption.”

Indians who came every year to the vicin-

ity of Bells Run near Ceres, N. Y., to hunt

in the spring and to make splint baskets,
“would build wigwams of hemlock bark,
which were too low for them to stand up in,
but which afforded them a comparatively
comfortable place to sleep, into which they
could crawl in time of storm. They built
their fires close to the opening, and slept
with their feet to it... [on]... hemlock
boughs,... rolled up in blankets...”
(Mann and King, 1896, p. 144). As early as
1805 John Lyman had encountered, in
May, a party of 30 Senecas from Allegany

299

Reservation encamped upon the abandoned
site of a town near the mouth of Trout Run,
7 miles below Coudersport, Pa. This was
during the pigeon nesting season (French,
1919" %. 23):

People returned year after year to the
same camping sites. If there was any pre-
emption of hunting grounds, in the sense
that the Senecas of Tonawanda used to
blaze witness trees to mark off a sector of
the sugar grove which a given family had
preempted for that year, it was rather of
camp sites than of pigeon trees. This is, of
course, only natural, as the trees were cut
down to get the pigeons. Since, however,
families returned year after year to the
same sites, the younger men had to go
farther down to new sites as they came
along. On arriving they built themselves
lean-tos in the manner already described
(C. J. John). As the season advanced, the pi-
geons moved gradually farther north. It ap-
pears that only the young men and those
older men who were themselves professional
pigeon-catchers or who were employed by
white professionals followed them as they
moved out of range of the original band
camp site.

When a large party under the guidance of
a headman or leader arrived where the pi-
geons had been reported nesting, the leader
instructed his party how to conduct them-
selves at the nesting ground. The hunting
camp, as Willie Gordon remembers it, was a
clearing enclosed by open-face shanties or
lean-tos that were covered with a deep
thatch of hemlock boughs. He said that a
steep roof with lots of boughs would turn a
heavy rain. In these shelters individuals
bedded down for the night on hemlock
boughs or bracken ferns, which gave off a
stimulating aroma.

Informants agree that there were two
camps. All the Cornplanter people lived to-
gether in one—‘‘on one side of the fire,” as
the Iroquois say; and some of the Cold-
spring and Cattaraugus people occupied the
opposite side. Thus the camp was divided in
two by locality as well as by religion, for the
Cornplanter people were then Christians;
but the Coldspring and Cattaraugus camp-
ers were followers of Handsome Lake, the
prophet, and were therefore so-called

300

‘“‘pagans.’’ Between the two camps a plat-
form of stones was built for the use of the
‘“‘speaker’’? who roused the camp at day-
break.

Someone was appointed to go to each
shelter early every morning to inquire
whether everyone was well. The runner for
the chief or “‘speaker,’’ as is customary in
Iroquois society, then came back and re-
ported to the ‘‘speaker,’’ who stood up on
the stone platform and returned thanks to
the Creator for keeping all well during the
night and asked for good luck during the
day’s hunt. “‘He returned thanks for every
thing all the way from the ground up to the
sky.”’ The same people officiated for both
camps.

‘“‘T can remember,’’ Willie Gordon related
‘chow the ‘speaker’ used to arise before day-
light and preach every morning while we
were at the pigeon camp. He returned
- thanks that everyone was well and asked for
protection and good luck during the day of
hunting, and then he chanted our thanks
to our Maker with the prayer they call
ganon'yonk.”’ This is the regular Seneca
prayer of thanksgiving for all things from
the earth upward to heaven that the
Creator ordained for man’s sustenance and
improvement. ‘‘This chant always re-
minded me of the baying of a hound, be-
cause the speaker would begin each article
with—Da’onen di’ oya’’ko (‘And so now then
another thing’)—and continue on a high
note to the end of that subject, when his
voice would fall. Then, having finished the
whole prayer, he would charge the people to
be honest: he would say the worst thing for
a man to do is to drink. ‘Be careful not to
use liquor or to sin while on this hunt!’
Then he would tell the old people to stay in
camp and watch the little children so that
they did not stray into the woods and get
lost.”’

Hunting Techniques

As soon as they had eaten, they all went
out, both camps working together during
the day. There was no particular organiza-
tion to the hunt; everybody was for himself.
Individual families worked for themselves,
and there was no such thing as sharing the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 10

kill. The Indians were interested only in the
squabs, and to get them the men cut down
the beech and hickory trees about 6 inches
in diameter, according to Willie Gordon, so
that the women and children could raid the
nests. When a tree fell, the men, women,
and children scuttled about picking up the
squabs out of the bushes. They were killed
by knocking them on the head with a stick,
by pinching the heads at the temples be-
tween thumb and forefinger, or by wringing
their necks.”

The squabs were at once cropped and
gutted, and a little salt was put on them.
Willie Gordon emphasized the need of
cleaning the squabs immediately: ‘We
would open them and take out the ‘innards’
and crop, for the meat smells badly if the
crop is left.’’ However, the squabs were not
plucked of feathers then or later. They were
carried back home with the feathers on. The
weather was usually cold enough so they
would keep; but, to repeat, the crops had to
be taken out at once or the meat would
spoil.

Many of the squabs were eaten at the
camp; but large quantities were packed for
transportation to the homes. In later years
there were increasing numbers of white buy-
ers who took, sometimes, the whole catch.

The hunters lived principally on squabs
that they had caught. These were bailed,
after the women had picked them clean of
feathers; but those to be taken home were
salted and roasted until dry before the fire,
or boiled and smoked in strips as fish. Here
our informant illustrated with his hands
how the meat was cut into strips. Others do
not recall that pigeons were smoked. Per-—
haps this reflects only a failing interest in

7 Biting the head just back of the eyes was the
approved method of killing the catch among pro-
fessional netters both in Ontario and Pennsyl-
vania. (Mitchell, 1935, p. 124; French, 1919, pp.
82, 102.) However, it is possible that this trait
was adapted from Indians. The western Eskimos
bite the necks of auklets when netting them
(Dr. Henry B. Collins, Jr., conversation), and this
seems to be a widespread trait among the Eskimo
as far east as Greenland. How much farther it
extends is uncertain. French (opp. p. 152) illus-
trates pincers that were invented and patented
by James V. Bennett to reduce such ‘‘cruelty at
the wholesale butcheries to a minimum.’—
W.N.F.

Oct. 15, 1944 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

_ preserving them in quantity. The hunters
~ grew fat on squabs and squab grease spread
on potatoes, which they bought from Cun-
ningham, the white man.

Each family strove to fill as many as pos-
sible of the barrels they had brought, and
when they returned to settlements such as
Coldspring and Cattaraugus the families
who had not gone on the hunt begged to
buy squabs of those who had made the trip
to the pigeon roosts. Willie Gordon said:
‘‘A long time ago the Senecas salted the
squabs like pork in casks of elm bark which
they made, or in big stone crocks which
they had obtained in trade.’ Each family
worked for itself. Leaders of the hunt got
nothing extra for their efforts.”’

An extract from the personal correspond-
ence of Jesse Cornplanter of Tonawanda
Reservation, N. Y., summarizes and con-
firms the statements of other informants.
Although Jesse is too young to have gone
out from Cattaraugus to hunt squabs, his
statement is an interesting example of how
such knowledge persists among the Iroquois
long after a custom is dead.

I will tell you this much about this matter.
My mother [deceased] had the good fortune to be
born early enough to have gone with this hunt for
squabs in her childhood, but she recalled clearly
what they did. She said that they had some
scouts that they sent out before the pigeons starts
to nest or hatch their young; these scouts had to
report back to the village, and then when the
time came, they all would start out in wagons
with empty barrels. They would travel all day
and then would camp for the night. They used to
go to some place around Kinzua, Pa., in the big
hardwood forest. They had one Head Man who
had full charge when en-route, [and] they would
all gather every morning for a speech of thanks
and ask for blessing and luck in their venture.
When they arrived at the spot, which seems to
have been in the hills or young mountains of the
Alleghenies, it would be all of beeches. The limbs
would be just covered with the nests of these
pigeons, (she said it looks like a crows nest—
just a few sticks), and there would be three or
four squabs [others say two] in each nest. Then
they would cut the trees down and as the tree
falls, then the children and women did gather the
squabs, and they would gut it and then salt it and
put it in layers in the barrels. She never saw them
smoked as your version says...

8 Salting for winter use is a trait that was ac-
quired early from the white settlers (Mitchell,
1935, p. 107).

301

In the evenings each camp had its own
doings. The Cornplanters were at this time
pretty much Christian; so they sang
hymns, prayed, and listened to preaching.
The preacher at that time was John Jacobs
Esquire, and he was always called Esquire
to distinguish him: it was as much part of
his name as the rest. Over in the Coldspring
camp, where the Handsome Lake followers
were quartered, they would sing and dance
and have preaching according to their own
custom. Willie Gordon never went to see it,
as—he says—he was at that time ‘‘full of
religion” (Christianity); and he stayed
away. Lydia Bucktooth was too small, and
Chauncey Johnny John, who would know,
remembers no ceremonies attached to the
hunt, and said there was no connection
between hunting pigeons and the Pigeon
Dance, that he had ever heard of. ‘‘It
is just another animal dance with non-

sense words.’’ Willie said even John Jacobs

Esquire could not see any harm in what
was done in the morning—the thanksgiving
to all the spirit-forces; but in the evening
the two camps did not mix.

This activity continued for two or three
weeks, often longer. ‘‘After the squabs got
so big that they would fly when the trees
were felled, we would leave that place and
go somewhere else,’’ said Willie Gordon. As
the pigeon nests were destroyed they would
move ahead and build others. The younger
people would follow the pigeons for a long
time, runners going on ahead and reporting
back to the chiefs, as we shall see below.
The pigeons roosted all over that country.
The forest was mostly beech, but Willie
pointed out stands of ‘‘pigeon cherry” (Pru-
nus pennsylvanica L.f.) (ganondjo’’gwane’)
from which the Senecas took pitch for burns.
It is notable that some of the finest stands
of cherry anywhere are yet in this forest.
Unlike Chauncey Johnny John, Willie and
Lydia say the pigeons nested mostly on the
plateau and they had no recollection of find-
ing them in the Blue Jay and Spring Creek
Valleys at all.

THE PIGEON IN SENECA FOLKLORE

Several legends involving the passenger
pigeon were formerly current among the
Senecas. Our informants neither knew how

302

their ancestors acquired the technique of
hunting pigeons nor did they connect this
activity with the beginnings of the Pigeon
Dance, of whose origin they are ignorant.
Moreover, the few published myths have
been overlooked by historians among orni-
thologists, who are more or less unfamiliar
with the literature of American Indian
folklore. Mitchell (p. 17), after considerable
search, found only three stories—two Hu-
ron and one Neutral; and thought it strange
that such legends should be so scarce, and
somewhat unnatural that this amazingly
spectacular creature was not more closely
linked with the folklore of the Indians, who
were ordinarily acute naturalists. But, as we
shall see, these birds were more than a
source of provender. Among the Seneca, at
least, folk-tales furnish answers to our ques-
tions concerning the introduction of hunt-
ing, the origin of the pigeon songs and dance,
the nature of the invocation at the cere-
mony for propitiating the pigeons, and the
sacred character of albino or white pigeons.

Taboo on Taking Albino Pigeons

The white or albino pigeon, like the
‘white crow,’ was considered sacred. be-
cause ‘“‘he was the headman”’ or “‘chief of the
pigeons.”’ ““Never disturb him, and never
cut down a tree in which a white pigeon has
nested,’ said Chauncey Johnny John.
Ascription of supernatural power to white
animals pervades Seneca mythology: wit-
ness the magic white beaver, the white
otter, the white dog sacrifice, etc. It is well
known that albino bison were considered
sacred among the Plains Indians. None of
our informants recalls seeing such a white
passenger pigeon. For further information
we turn back a generation to the Cattarau-
gus informants of Curtin and Hewitt.

Pigeon Hunting in Mythology

A tendency for afolk to project their daily
activities into ancient times is a constant
characteristic of mythology. As the myths
themselves sometimes survive the _ pro-
jected activity, they become a source of in-
formation on the former culture of the folk.
This is precisely the case with pigeon hunt-
ing. A Seneca myth purporting to be the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 33, No. 10

origin of the porcupine people, a clan not
present among the Seneca, refers to an an-
cient time when the Iroquoians were appar-
ently a single nation of hunters and gather-
ers. As they became numerous, the game be-
came so scarce that it was necessary for the
tribe to divide. This decision was made in
public assembly, which guaranteed to each
band of maternal kindred (ohwachira) its
own hunting territory. Subsequently, inter-
necine warfare arose out of attempts to
punish trespassers. Now, the porcupine peo-
ple of this myth are said to be the descend-
ants of one Wendat (Huron) woman, the
matron of one of these separated bands. In
this account of the yearly cycle of their
economy, one sees projected the funda-
mental patterns around which later Seneca
economy was organized as recently as the
pigeon hunts we have described.

The porcupine people knew where to
gather nuts, berries, and small fruits, and
they also knew just where the wild pigeons
had their roosts.

They noted the whereabouts of these places,
and when the season was fully come their leaders
and chiefs would call to their people in a loud
voice: “Come! Let us go to feed ourselves abun-
dantly where the wild pigeons have now prepared
their roosts for the purpose of breeding.’’ At this
time the wild pigeons were so numerous that many
flocks stretched over large tracts of territory
darkening the light of the sun and making with
their wings a loud rushing sound resembling that
of an approaching tornado. Giving heed to the
call of their leaders, the people would make the
necessary preparations to go to the roosts of
the wild pigeon. Having reached the desig-
nated place, the people quickly put up temporary
camps and.then went out at once to kill the
squabs, which they brought to their lodges to
broil and eat with boiled corn bread and corn
soup. All were delighted with the bounty of
nature—the gift of the Master of Life.

Having thus spent part of the summer killing
wild pigeons, after the birds had departed, a
leader among the people would say: “Oh! friends,
cousins and kindred, the deer people have now
gone in this direction and are now fat and in good
condition to be killed for food and for their skins.
Let us decamp now and go the place where they
may be found. Up and let us be going. Let us lose
no time in delay.’ So, leaving the grounds of the
pigeon roosts early in autumn, they would journey
to the land where the deer were accustomed to
feed and raise their young. (Curtin and Hewitt,
1918, pp. 654-656.)

Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

White Pigeon, Chief of the Pigeons

Seneca story-tellers depicted the white pi-
geon as chief of the pigeons who live as peo-
ple in colonies and hold councils. The deci-
sion of the council of birds is revealed to an
old man in a vision while on a solitary hunt.
The pigeons offer their young for the sup-
port of man and decree rules for conducting
the hunt. This supports the contention of
Coldspring informants that a master of the
hunt governed the conduct enroute to the
pigeon grounds. The pigeons entered into a
contract with mankind: in return for their
young they expected an offering and invo-
cation with tobacco smoke. Violations led to
misfortunes among the hunters.

This is the story of the White Pigeon, the
chief of the pigeons (after Curtin and Hew-
itt, 1918, pp. 694-696):

[White pigeon chief of colonies]

It. is said that among the wild pigeons the
white ones are the chiefs of their communities.
According to tradition, a white pigeon once flew
into the forest lodge of a noted man, the Wild
Cat. The visitor did not appear ill at ease but
stood in the lodge wherever it seemed good to
him, and then without remark he flew away.

The old man, Wild Cat, somewhat amazed by
this quiet conduct of his visitor, related the inci-
dent to his neighbors, saying that this visit por-
tended ...something out of the ordinary....
But an entire year passed and nothing unusual
happened to old Wild Cat...

[Council of birds: Pigeons ordained for man]

But at about the same season the next year the
same White Pigeon again visited the old man’s
lodge. At this visit the old man believed that the
White Pigeon was a man..., so he conversed
with him.... White Pigeon informed the old
man... that all the various tribes of birds had
held council... [and]’... had decided that the
wild pigeons should furnish a tribute to mankind,
because their Maker had selected the wild pigeons
for this important duty .. . other birds had only
very little to give... because... [they lived]
dispersed here and there, and... could be ob-
tained only with difficulty, while the others had
nothing to offer toward the support of mankind.

[Taking squabs]

So, being the only tribe of birds which built
their nests and reared their young in a single
community, it was resolved by the various tribes
of birds that the pigeons should spare some of
their young men for food. White Pigeon con-
tinued by saying that he had come purposely to

notify old man Wild Cat of this .. . decision, and

303

tell him the young pigeons were to be taken in
proper season, and the manner in which this must
be done.

[Master of hunt: Places “‘pole
across path,’ |

He said: “‘In the season of the roost, when the
young pigeons have attained a suitable size for
eating, the people should select a suitable person
as superintendent or master of the hunt, and he
should give the essential directions to the people
for... [preparing]... for the hunt before start-
ing for the hunting grounds where the pigeons
have their roosts in the forest.”

On such a hunting expedition the entire com-
munity was engaged, and so it was not unusual
to have a very large crowd of people moving along
a common path at this time. However, to secure
order and obedience certain rules for the march
must be observed by all.... When the party
halted to rest, to eat, or to camp, for the night,
the leader would place a rod, suitably painted,
across the path, and no one was permitted to pass
over it or to go around it for the purpose of con-
tinuing the journey regardless of the rest of the
party. It was held that should one break this in-
junction some misfortune would inevitably befall
the party. When the party was ready to proceed
the leader would take up the rod and then the
journey would be resumed.

[Offering to pigeons]

Upon nearing the roosting place of the pigeons
it was customary to make a collection of gifts from
the people, consisting of various articles of orna-
ment and trinkets of all kinds, for an offering to
the pigeons. These . . . gifts were placed in a bark
bowl and this was borne... into the forest to
some swampy place where the tall weeds were
plentiful, and these gifts were spread out on a
piece of elm bark while native tobacco was burned
and an invocation... was made to the pigeons
and their Maker.

Tradition reports that for the first hunting ex-
pedition the people . . . did not observe the rules
of the master of the hunt, . . . some went around
the painted rod ... others withheld presents...
and many accidents happened to them: some
broke their legs, others their arms, some fell sick,
and some died... .

Killing both young and old pigeons at any
season is by implication proscribed.

The Song of the Pigeons

The white pigeon as chief and elder of the
Pigeon Tribe discloses their songs and dance
to a pure man who has a vision at the nest-
ing grounds in another tale which Hewitt
obtained in 1896 from Joshua Buck (Onon-
daga) (BAE MS. No. 2883) of Grand River,
Canada; and published with the Curtin col-

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lection (pp. 663-666). The original text is in
Onondaga, Buck’s native tongue. He called
the story Djo'hd Hodiénna’, ‘The Song of
the Pigeons.”’

[Families had separate camps]

These birds had formed a nesting place....
Having received knowledge...a great number
of men, women, and children, starting from their
villages, went to the place where the pigeons
formed their roosts... arrived... they at once
began to build their temporary camps according
to their ohwachiras [maternal families] and clans
and kindred.

[Puberty vision quest]

... A man who had just reached .. . puberty
and had no evil habits went with this crowd of
people. ... He was a very good person... they
began to travel from place to place through the
roost to kill such pigeons as they needed. At this
time the upright young man heard the tumult
arising from the cries of pigeons (conversing) to-
gether and he also saw the pigeons in vast num-
bers wheeling in circles.

Suddenly ... greatly surprised to see flying
among the pigeons one white in color... As he
watched .. . the white pigeon left the others and
alighted ... nearby. At once the pigeon began
to speak, saying: ‘‘Understand that we have se-
lected you to tell your people what ... we desire

. most... You must tell your chief that we
do not like to have so many among you in this
place who do not remember Him who has created
us. [Our Maker.] There are many who think only
evil things to please themselves. We wish that
they who have evil thoughts should put away
evil desires, and we believe that whoever does not
do so will suffer some grave misfortune.

[Thanksgiving morning and night]

‘We further wish you and your people to join
us in daily returning thanksgiving when each
morning and evening shall return to us. We think
this profitable. ... You see us when the morning
comes making a great tumult, and you hear us all
talking while we circle around the place in which
we have our roost. The reason for this behavior is

. we are offering thanksgivings to Him who has
created our bodies. In the evening this takes place
again ...and you see us then circling around
our roosting place, and you hear the accompany-
ing sound and confusion of voices. Now, under-
stand, we are going through the ceremony of the
dance, and we are singing. This signifies that we
are happy; we are full of joy.

‘“‘We have no protest to make against your
coming to this place to obtain the young whose
bodies resemble ours. Indeed, you wish that these
[offspring] shall become a source of satisfaction
[subsistence]... we have only the kindest of
feelings toward you in this pursuit of your de-
sires. You must know, too, that Our Maker has

VOL. 33, NO. 10

ordained that this our flesh shall be for the wel-
fare and contentment of human beings dwelling
on the earth.

[Pigeon dance and tobacco offering]

“You must understand further that I, at whom
you are looking—I who am speaking to you, am
indeed the oldest person among my people, and
it is on account of my great age that they have
chosen me to come to you and tell you our wishes
and to teach you our songs. You, too, are able to
sing them. It is essential that you should enjoy

‘yourselves; that you shall dance in order to do

this; and that all your people who are here shall
take part. In dancing you shall make circuits
around the places where you have kindled your
fires. When you have finished the singing and
dancing you shall go with your chief to make an
offering of tobacco at the very border of our en-
campment [roost], where you two shall stand to
perform this ceremony. When you have kindled a
fire you shall cast native tobacco on it, and while
thus occupied you must pray our Creator to per-
mit you and your people to pass the period of
your stay here in health and prosperity. At that
time, your chief, too, shall cast something on the
fire—things of which you make daily use, and
these objects shall become the token or message
of the people. Furthermore, we together, you and
my people, must unite in performing this cere-
mony, and we must also be of one accord when we
make this prayer and request of the Creator of
our bodies. Now it is for you to return to your
people and tell them fully what I have said to
you. This is what I have to say.’

Then the upright young man replied to his
pigeon friend: ‘“‘Your proposition is agreeable to
me, and I will fulfill my duty... by telling my
people all that you have said to me.”’

[Youth learns songs]

Without speaking further the white pigeon

. flew away. The young man, while watching it
fly off, saw a large number of pigeons moving in a
circle as they flew along; and he heard the birds
sing, making a very loud song, a tumult of voices.
He listened very attentively and for a long time
and finally learned the songs which the pigeons
were singing so loudly. Then he returned to his
lodge and his own fireside.

[Youth relates vision to clan chief who
carries out contract with the
supernaturals |

At once he related in every detail all the white
pigeon had said to him. A messenger was sent for
the chief of his clan, and when he arrived the up-
right young man again repeated all that the white
pigeon had said to him concerning the duties of
the people who were there to hunt squabs. When
the chief had heard ... he at once said: ‘‘Let us
at once do as the white pigeon has proposed. Let
someone be detailed to make a collection of
offerings, and then we shall proceed with the re-

— a - S e

Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

mainder of the ceremony.”’ Certain headmen were
detailed to make the collection of offerings. Going
from lodge to lodge, they collected various articles
presented to them as offerings in the ceremony.
Some gave wristlets, some bracelets, some neck-
laces, while others contributed articles of dress,
moccasins, and tobacco of the native variety.
When they had visited all the lodges they re-
turned to the lodge of the upright young man,
where he and their chief awaited them.

[Offering to pigeons]

After they had properly arranged the offerings
the chief said: ‘‘Let us start now; we will go to-
ward the place which borders on the pigeon roost
or nesting place.’”’ Then they two started, the
chief and the upright young man. When they
reached the border of the pigeon roost they
kindled there a very small fire, and the young man
made an offering of native tobacco by casting it
into the fire, at the same time asking the Creator
for health and welfare and contentment for all
the people while they were at that place. His
prayer was long and earnest, and when he ceased
his invocation the chief stepped forward to begin
his prayer. Bringing all the articles which had
been offered and standing before the fire, he said
in prayer: ‘‘Thou who hast created our bodies,
here lie all those things by which we support our
message (by which we support its head), all the
words of our prayer. We offer these to Thee.
Accept them as a testimony of our faith.’”’ Then
he laid all the objects which he had brought near

the fire. Thereupon the two men returned to the.

lodge of the upright young man.

[People called to repent, and to learn new dance]

When there they went at once from lodge to
lodge to call a council of the people. As soon as the
people had come together and had seated them-

selves according to their families-and clans the

chief arose and addressed them. He urged them to
repent of their evil deeds... and to offer...
thanksgivings to their Creator in the morning and
also in the evening. .. . When he had finished his
address on the need of observing faithfully the
things which had been taught them by the Pigeon
people, he said: ‘‘ Now let us severally give thanks-
givings to the Creator of our bodies, and moreover
we will dance to the songs of the Pigeon people.
Every person should take part in this ceremony.”

[Two leaders lead. whirling column of
pigeon dancers |

Thereupon the upright young man and the
chief took their stations at the head of the line of
dancers. When all were in line and ready the
young man began to sing the songs of the pigeons,
and all danced following their leaders. In dancing
they made a circuit of the lodges, moving slowly
to the rhythm of the songs as they turned from
the right toward the left. When the young man
had sung all the songs the young man had reached
the point of departure.

305

[Explanatory elements: Counter-clockwise
movement of social dances]

Then the chief, addressing the people, said:
‘‘We have now, indeed, performed this ceremony
as it has been taught to us by the people of the
pigeons; and when we shall depart from this place
we must take back with us this ceremony, which
will be of great benefit to us. We have learned
these songs here from a superior people, and so we
must cherish this ceremony. We have learned, too,
that in dancing we must always make the circuit
of the fires in one direction: namely, from the
right to the left. The reason for this is that you
use your right hands either to seize or to release
whatever you wish, so it is necessary that the
right side at all times be on the outside of the
circle of dancers, and that the part of the body
in which lies our life shall at all times be on the
inside of the line of dancers. Let us now make
ready to start for our homes.” With loud shouts
of approval and of exuberance or joy the dancers
returned to their lodges to make preparations to
depart for their homes.

RELATIONS WITH WHITE PIGEONERS:
NETTING

Our informants emphatically stated that
Seneca Indians never took the old pigeons,
which they deemed inferior as food, for
their own account; and that they never
knew Indians to shoot into the trees with
shotguns to slaughter the roosting old pi-
geons wholesale as did the whites; but many
Indians did work for the numerous white
pigeoners who used these practices as well
as nets. Chauncey Johnny John remembers
big nets that covered the whole tree and re-
calls that some Indians did as the white
people and set up nets on posts, into which
the pigeons flew and fell down. That, how-
ever, was when Indians were selling to the
white people. This is interesting in view of
Morgan’s statement already cited and the
evidence of Cayuga folklore. The Rochester
Museum has two pigeon nets and a stool-
pigeon stool which came from the neighbor-
hood of Irving, adjacent to Cattaraugus
Indian Reservation (Seneca). They are
indubitably quite old (A. C. Parker, p.c.),
but there is no assurance that they were
made and used by Indians.

The U. 8. National Museum has a pas-
senger pigeon trapping outfit consisting of
net, releaser pole, and pigeon baskets for
transporting live pigeons that was used by
white commercial trappers. It was con-

- tributed by Courtenay Brandreth, of Ossin-

306

ing, N. Y., through Dr. A. K. Fisher (Divi-
sion of Ethnology, Acc. No. 1009389:
_A. Wetmore, Assistant Secretary, p.c.).
According to Mr. Brandreth, the equip-
ment belonged to Tot Acker, of Sing Sing,
NOY:

The net was used in southeastern New York
by white people, and I think the technique they
used came from Europe. ... The nets were laid
flat on the ground a few feet apart. The spaces
between them were baited [with salt or corn],
and the nets were sprung inward. A live pigeon
was tied to the hover and it was raised up and
down to simulate a bird lighting. Also, live birds
had their eyelids sewn together and were thrown
into the air and pulled down with a string for the
same effect. I think you will find needles and
thread still in the decoy basket. (Courtenay
Brandreth, p.c. 11/24/1942.)

Such devices were widely employed by
professional trappers, or catchers, as they
were usually called. Willie Gordon described
how, when working with professionals, the
Indians would clear all leaves from a piece
of ground; bait it with salted corn; and put
up a very large net, either suspended from
trees or tied down to saplings. The hired
Indians hid in the bushes until the ground
was covered with feeding old birds to pull
the ‘‘trigger’’ and release the net, which
would envelop the pigeons: This descrip-
tion is not unlike that of Peter Kalm’s ob-
servations of hunting practice among the
Onondaga, and it seems unlikely that the
Seneca had not tried netting birds at an ear-
lier time.

White men were usually present among
the Indians to buy all the squabs that were
for sale. Lydia Bucktooth’s family went just
for a good time, with the idea of selling all
the squabs they caught to white buyers.
Lydia said that if there was any way to
bring the squabs home people would do it,
of course; but many had all they could do to
get home themselves with their axes, ket-
tles, and camping paraphernalia. She thinks
not many squabs were brought back from
the hunt. Alice White, whose people went in
an ox-cart, says that her father brought
back barrels filled with squabs, most of
which were at once given away to the old
people who had not been able to go on the
hunt. Many Indians, no doubt, did as Willie
Gordon who says he carried home as many

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 33, No. 10

dressed squabs as he could pack into ash-
splint carrying baskets suspended from a
burden strap or tump line, passing across
the chest and shoulders, or forehead, to the
back. A carrying basket filled with dressed
squabs was a pretty heavy load.

Indians hunted side by side with profes-
sional pigeon hunters for many years. Com-
petition gradually sharpened. The pigeons
were disappearing, and large timber acreage
was destroyed. As the railroads entered the
pigeon country—which was also the timber
country—public opinion was stirred against
the waste of both. The year 1868 is said to
have seen the last great nesting on New
York soil, at Bells Run, near Ceres in Alle-
gany County. According to Fred R. Eaton,
of Olean, the whole Cattaraugus band of
Senecas moved to the nesting grounds and
remained for two weeks to take pigeons.
White professionals attended, of course, and
their method of stretching and baiting nets
is well described; but it does not appear that
the Indians used this technique.

“They also invaded the roosts and
knocked the squabs from the nests, felling
trees so as to shake down hundreds to-
gether. In preparing them for shipment
their crops were torn out to prevent the
breast meat from souring, they were packed
in barrels and hurried to the city. Pigeons
continued to nest. in this locality until
1872.” (Eaton, 1910, p. 383; Mann and
King, 1896, p. 99.) This business of shipping
pigeons was apparently engaged in by both
Indians and whites; and thus the Indian
techniques were commercialized when
squabs were taken for the market.

There were large nestings after this in
some years, at least in northwestern Penn-
sylvania. The flight of 1878 was unusually
heavy, accounted for by the professionals—
who followed the pigeons wherever they
were, east or west—by guessing that the
Wisconsin—Michigan flights were following
the eastern route that year. Some idea of
the extent of the traffic, the movements of
the pigeons and the shift of attention from
dead to live birds as the weather grew warm —
may be had from the extracts from The
Warren Mail for 1878, presented in the Ap-
pendix hereto. :

The advent of railroads in the pigeon

Ocr. 15, 1948 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

country—which was also the timber coun-
try of northwestern Pennsylvania—brought
the eastern markets for both birds and lum-
ber closer and made both more valuable.
Public opinion, impressed by the failure of
the pigeon flights to materialize annually in
such large numbers as formerly, forced
legislative protection for the birds on their
nesting grounds, in Pennsylvania; and local
land owners no longer looked with indiffer-
ence on the destruction of their trees. It
does not appear that much attention was
paid to the provisions of the laws made to
protect the pigeons themselves. So long as
the hunters let the trees alone, there was lit-
tle interference with them.

Willie Gordon tells how on one occasion
officers from the sheriff’s office came on
horseback to stop the Indians from felling
trees. ‘‘They said, ‘If you Indians cut down
any more trees we will arrest you.’ Now, old
Jesse Logan, Frank Logan’s grandfather,
who was among us objected. He reminded
them of the white people’s treaty with Corn-
planter which reserved for the Indians of his
band the right to hunt, fish, take pigeons,
and fell timber wherever they may be in 22
counties of New York and Pennsylvania.
One of the party, Jonathan Pierce, returned
here to Cornplanter for the treaty papers,
but he did not arrive back at the pigeon
camp until late the following day, since it
was a day’s walk each way to the camp in
Forest County some way south of Sheffield
[see above]. When the officers were shown
the papers, they said that if the Indians
would leave the big trees so that the timber
would be spared and just cut down the
smaller ones, this would satisfy them. And
so we did this.”’

- Willie says further: ‘‘At that time there

was a great crowd of Indians, and whites
who had come on horseback and in wagons
to buy the squabs which we had caught.
They were always right there to fill them
with squabs. There were traders and mer-
chants, for then the only white settler in
that region was a man named Cunningham
of whom we bought potatoes that he raised
in a small clearing beside his log cabin in
which he was continually troubled by ma-
rauding bears who came in the night and
clawed on the door.”

307

Willie Gordon’s Narrative of His
First Pigeon Scout

Now, as I have said, when the squabs got so
big that they would fly every time the men felled
the trees in which they perched, we would have to
quit that place and move our camp to enother
nesting grove. On the occasion of this story, white
horsemen had reported a place where the pigeons
had gone in great flocks. So then our leaders called
a council there to decide among ourselves whether
to return home next morning or to continue hunt-
ing. The council appointed two scouts: my uncle,
the late Charlie Gordon, and Alfred Halftown, to
go see if they could locate the reported pigeon
roost and to report back to the council. Now I
was just a small boy at that time and I wanted to
tag along with Uncle Charlie, but he did not want
the bother of having me with him for fear that I
might get lost in the big woods. But I went any-
way. Moreover, I had a double-barrel muzzle-
loader shotgun that I carried and a powder horn
and various sizes of shot. And so I followed.

We had gone some distance when we com-
menced to hear a rumbling noise—mmmmmmm!:
like that. We went on, trying to determine which
way the noise came. We were in the big timber—
no path, no trail—way back of Sheffield. Then
we saw fresh tracks which we thought were the
tracks of a panther, he”’7is. In front of us we could
see the passenger pigeons at work on the beech-
nuts on the ground. When they would fly they
would all fly at once, making this great humming
noise—mmmmmmm! We crossed a little brook
where the shores were completely white with
feathers of the birds that had bathed there. Here
a tree was uprooted and in the upturned earth we
could see for certain the tracks of a big panther.
We were afraid of that. Now the older ones wanted
my gun. Up to that time they had considered me
and my double-barrel gun a nuisance—something
to stop and wait for. Now at that time I had two
shots in there; I had loaded it that morning with
fine birdshot.

One of the men took my gun and shot it off and
then reloaded it with buckshot, and I had nothing.
But we walked on and at last we came to the
place where the pigeons had nested. Here we cut
down a little tree intending to take some squabs
back to camp, as we had been instructed to find
the nests and bring some squabs to let the people
see their condition. Then the council would de-
cide whether to remove to that place or to return
home.

When we were ready to start back each of us
had a different idea as to which direction our camp
lay. Finally, after much discussion, we decided
to take one way, and we walked on and on
through the woods, becoming very hungry and
thirsty. It was growing late when we saw smoke
far off and we decided to go see what it might be,
for we thought it might possibly be our own camp.
When we at last reached the place where the
smoke arose, we discovered that some white
people had.been camping there. There were

308

hemlock-bough shanties, and outside a fire was
still smouldering. We went inside one shanty and
found provisions: there was canned milk—this
was the first time I ever saw milk in cans; there
was coffee and sugar. So now then we sat down
and prepared a meal and so then we ate. After we
had had enough, we returned thanks and packed
up everything there was left over and carried it
with us; and we followed the white men’s trail,
which at its end came down to the muddy road
where it was rutted by the wagons of many pigeon
traders driving toward our camp. So at the end
of this road that so many people had traveled we
found the Indian camp. When we reached camp
it was getting dark and the people had gathered
to discuss what had become of us. They were
afraid that we were lost.

If I ever again hear that there is to be a pigeon
hunt I will try and go there. It is the best fun you
ever saw. When we get back people will not know
us—we will be fat from eating squabs and drink-
ing pigeon-oil. You ought to see how fat those
squabs are!

DISAPPEARANCE

Nevertheless none of the old Senecas ever
again expect to see the jdh’gowa fly north in
the spring. Several Cornplanter people told
us that they had heard the old folks say
those birds tried to cross the ocean and that
they had all perished in a storm by drown-
ing, starvation, or exhaustion. However,
this is “old hat,” as every ornithologist
knows. So the “big breads” live now only in
the memories of a few old people like Willie
Gordon and Lydia Bucktooth. But the
young people of Coldspring Longhouse con-
tinue to dance the Pigeon Dance, still a
favorite social dance among all the Iro-
quois; and at Tonawanda it is an integral
part of the spring Maple Thanksgiving Fes-
tival.

Of the numerous reasons advanced by
ornithologists to explain the disappearance
of the passenger pigeon, adequately treated
by Mitchell in her monograph of this spe-
cies, only those theories entertained by In-
dians concern us here. The Indians believed
that their practice of taking squabs when
they were ready to leave the nests was a
measure of conservation. By long observa-
tion they knew that there were plenty of
birds until white competition and attention
to the adult birds, shot and persecuted re-
lentlessly with nets and traps, gradually re-
duced the number and size of the annual
nestings, until they disappeared entirely.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 10

The notion that the passenger pigeon was
present in great numbers one year and com-
pletely gone the next has been proved a
popular fallacy. As early as 1660 they had
already begun to disappear from the New
England coast; and in the Iroquois country
of New York and western Pennsylvania,
and in Ontario, their disappearance was no-
ticeable by 1850. In 1848 there is record of
shipment from Cattaraugus County, in
western New York, alone of over 80 tons of
the birds. Four years later occurred the last
great nesting at Ashford, between the Alle-
gheny and Cattaraugus Senecas. Practically
all the squabs, together with a greater por-
tion of the old birds, were captured (Mer-
shon, 1907, p. 122). After the great nestings
at Ceres in 1868-72, there is still record of
occasionally very heavy flights in north-
western Pennsylvania for the next decade
or so. According to Todd, the last at-
tempted nesting of any size in northwestern
Pennsylvania was observed in Potter
County in 1886. After that only a few birds
appeared at Sheffield, the locus of the
Cornplanter Seneca hunts, which pretty
well dates them. The last passenger pigeon
seen in Warren County by one who was
competent to identify it was reported by
Ralph B. Simpson on the Allegheny near
Warren, in company with a flock of mourn-
ing doves, May 20, 1893.

No single cause serves to explain the dis-

- appearance of the passenger pigeon. Mitch-

ell thinks the immediate cause was the up-
set of its equilibrium of life in terms of its
optimum population density—which was
certainly high—to which the increasing dis-
turbance of its nesting contributed. All
authorities seem agreed that the culprits in
this process were the market hunters who
destroyed the annual crop of squabs by
raiding the nests and substantially reduced
the size of the adult flocks by netting and
shooting. Clearing the land was detrimental
of course; but as the forests have survived
the pigeons, this alone will not account for
their extinction. Diseases introduced along
with domestic poultry may have taken some
toll; but their effect could be only inconsid-
erable as compared with that of man’s de-
struction of the species. The market hunters

Ocr. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS 309

found a ready explanation for what hap-
pened in a legend that persists, as we have
seen, as a tradition among the Senecas: The
theory that a cyclonic disturbance on the
sea drowned the birds in great numbers.
Kalm advanced it in 1740 (1759), and the
story has been cropping up in one form or
another ever since.

It is certain, therefore, that the passenger
pigeon’s disappearance can not be attribut-
ed to natural enemies, or to the Indian.
Forbush, who gave this problem some
thought, pointed out that for the years that
pigeons were most abundant its natural en-
emies were most numerous; and that its ex-
tinction is coincident with the disappear-
ance of bears, panthers, wolves, lynxes, and
birds of prey. Forbush says:

The aborigines never could have reduced ap-
preciably the number of the species. Wherever
the great roosts were established, Indians always
gathered in large numbers. This, according to
their traditions, had been the custom among them
from time immemorial. They always had
slaughtered these birds, young and old, in great
quantities; but there was no market among the
Indians, and the only way in which they could
preserve the meat for future use was by drying or
smoking the breasts. They cured large quantities
in this way. Also, they were accustomed to kill
great quantities of the squabs in order to try out
the fat, which was used as butter is used by the
whites. (Forbush, 1936, p. 41; cf. 1927, vol. 2,
p. 59. Italics added.)

At least two authorities have argued that
all that is required to bring about the ex-
tinction of a species is to kill off a large pro-
portion of its offspring each year before they
reach maturity. Nature cuts off the rest.
(Forbush, 1936, p. 44; Townsend, 1932, p.
382.) The Indian practice of taking only the
young birds and leaving the breeding stock
which they considered a measure of con-
servation became a means of extinction
when employed by professional pigeoners.

Dr. Alexander Wetmore, who has read
this manuscript, offers another explanation:
‘“As one matter of biological import there is
little question in my mind that but one egg
was the normal complement in the set of
this species. Occasionally two eggs were
found, but where this occurred it is my
opinion that the second egg came from a
female other than the rightful owner of the

nest. It is not unusual for birds of this type
to lay an occasional random egg in this way.
The fact that the birds normally reared only
one young per season is enough to account
for their disappearance under the heavy
persecution to which they were subjected
by commercial trappers and hunters, since
no species can stand such a toll with a rate
of reproduction that requires at least two
years to reproduce the original pair (A. Wet-
more, p.c., 11/9/1942).”’ |

In any event, the commercial hunter was
the principal factor in the extinction of this
species.

HISTORICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Value as Food to the Seneca Indians

The question naturally arises as to how
important was the passenger pigeon as food
in the diet of the Seneca Indians. We have
already seen that the neighboring Cayuga
and Onondaga netted pigeons at salt licks
and on bluffs, and we have presented a
number of early and modern records of huge
nestings that were attended by whole bands
of Senecas and segments of the aforemen-
tioned tribes. Presumably for several weeks
between maple harvest and planting season,
when the pigeons nested, the Seneca settle-
ments were more or less evacuated while the
population concentrated at the nesting
grounds to take squabs and smoke them for
transportation home. Great quantities were
consumed on the grounds; all informants
testify how fat they became. During this
period, and for some weeks thereafter,
squabs constituted the bulk of their diet. In
fact, one wonders whether the Indians must
not have become as fed up with eating pi-
geon and drinking pigeon broth as did the
pioneers of Canada (Mitchell, pp. 106-107).
However, with the Indians, their ceremo-
nies at hunting suggest that the pigeons very
often came in time to relieve starvation. At
this season the Iroquois were often reduced
to eating their seed corn. In good years
there were squabs aplenty to keep the Sene-
cas, and all the Iroquois for that matter,

through the planting season—particularly

if one can accept as typical such nestings as
the one observed by John Lyman, an early
settler. He says it extended 100 miles along

310

the Upper Allegheny in late May and early
June of 1805, and again in 1810 (French,
1919, pp. 23-25).

Prehistoric Evidence

Before the white man settled in America,
ancestors of the Iroquoian peoples took pas-
senger pigeons and presumably ate them.
Bones of adult birds are common among the
bird remains from refuse heaps of precon-
tact village sites in the Iroquoian area. It
seems reasonable to assume that these early
peoples preferred the squabs to adult birds,
as did their descendants. Moreover, since
the bones in young birds are not completely
ossified until the fledglings leave the nest,
and remembering that it was the practice to
take the squabs just before they left the
nests, it follows that if, as we suspect, pre-
historic Iroquoians took great quantities of
squabs and ate them on the grounds, squab
bones—if they survived at all—would not
be represented in the village site remains.
This fact may account for the dearth of re-
ports on this species for New York State
Iroquois sites. (However, absence of data
may also reflect careless archeological tech-
nique. Pigeon bones are small.)

In the refuse heaps of two prehistoric sites
within the historic area of the Neutral tribe
(Niagara Peninsula), reported by Wintem-
berg on identifications by A. Wetmore
(U.S. National Museum), passenger pigeon
bones are dominant among the bird remains
at Uren, while at Lawson village site the
passenger pigeon is the third ranking bird
(in their diet) after turkey and ruffed
grouse. But the numbers of mammal bones
were by far in the majority.?®

At Roebuck, a prehistoric Mohawk-On-
ondaga site in the St. Lawrence Valley,
again mammal bones were most abundant,
and bird bones were not numerous. Of 13
species of birds reported, the passenger pi-
geon was sixth in order of frequency (Win-

9 Wintemberg, 1928, p. 5; 1939, p. 9. In the
Lawson prehistoric village site in Middlesex
County, Ontario, of 11,000 animal bones, the
majority (10,000) were of mammals; second in
rank were 186 bird bones, ‘‘in order of their abun-
dance: wild turkey, ruffed grouse, Passenger
Pigeon, Canada goose...”

Acknowledgement is made to Dr. Alexander

Wetmore, who made the identifications, for the
opportunity to discuss these matters with him.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

temberg, 1936, p. 14). While these figures
are suggestive, they remain inconclusive
without comparable statistics from prehis-
toric Seneca sites in western New York.

Comparative Notes

From the fragmentary archeological evi-
dence we turn to some comparisons of pas-
senger pigeon hunting among other historic
eastern woodland tribes whose territories
were traversed by these migratory creatures.
To know that neighboring tribes followed
the annual pigeon nestings, observed simi-
lar customs and utilized hunting techniques
identical with those of the Senecas would
strengthen the case for the aboriginality of
the Seneca activity. The Seneca material
assumes proper perspective in such a com-
parison; and, other things being equal, what
we have been able to establish for Seneca
passenger pigeon hunting illuminates refer-
ences to other tribes, broadening our view of
the relation of man to his natural environ-
ment in eastern America. |

Passenger pigeons nested in eastern Mas-
sachusetts and were relatively abundant
throughout New England until nesting be-
gan within fifty years of white settlement.
The early nestings at Essex, near the coast,
were only 30 miles from the white settle-
ments; Wood (1629-34) describes a nesting
colony that filled a great pinery, ‘from
whence the Indians fetch whole loades of
them’”’ (Wood, 1865, zn Forbush, 1927, vol.
2, p. 59). Wood does not say that Indians
trapped adult birds. The inference is that
they took the squabs from the nests.
Wuskéwhan is given by Roger Williams
(1643) as the Algonquian word for “‘pi-
geon”’; of which Cotton Mather writes,
“Or Indians call these Pigeons, by a name
that signifies Wanderers’ (Schorger, 1938,
p. 474). Mather’s statements are probably
of Natick origin. They are a tribute to the
keenness of Indian observation on the hab-
its of birds, but they contain no information
regarding the Indians in relation to the pi-
geons other than the apparent fact that
Mather met them, too, at a salt marsh. |
Williams, however, observes: ‘‘In the ‘Pi-
geon Countrie’ [which Trumbull assigns to
the northern part of Nipmuck territory,
now Worcester, Mass.; then occupied by a

Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

little band called ‘furthermost Neepnet
men,’ next neighbors to the Showatucks]
... these Fowls breed abundantly, and by
reason of their delicate Food (especially in
Strawberrie time when they pick up whole
fields of the old grounds of the Natives, they
are a delicate fowle, and because of their
abundance, and the facility of killing them,
they are and may be plentifully fed on.”
(Williams, 1866, p. 116.)

Asin New England, the passenger pigeon
receded from the coast of New York and
New Jersey with the Indians. It may be in-
ferred from the following accounts that the
coastal Algonquians, the aborigines of New
Netherland, once took these birds in much
the same manner as the Iroquois. In ‘“‘De-
scription of New Netherlands, 1671,’ it is
said by Montanus that fowls, turkeys,
geese, ducks, pigeons and other feather
game are also easily obtained. “‘The pi-
geons fly in such flocks that the Indians de-
signedly remove to their breeding places,
where the young birds pushed by hundreds
from their nests, serve for food during a long
month for the whole family’? (Montanus,
p, 123), 7

We do not find accounts of the early Del-
aware hunting them, but it is reported that
their annual custom of burning the woods in
hunting deer ‘‘kept the woods clean, so that
pigeons readily got acorns, which then not
being devour’d by hogs, were plenty almost
everywhere.”’ (Samuel Smith, 1890, p. 511.)
However, for the eighteenth century David
Zeisberger, writing of the Delaware of
whom many had accompanied him from
eastern Pennsylvania to the present site of
New Philadelphia, Ohio, in the years 1779
and 1780, says:

~The wild pigeon is of an ash-gray color, the
male being distinguished by a red breast. In some
years in fall, or even in spring, they flock together
in such numbers that the air is darkened by their
flight. Three years ago (i.e. 1776 or 1777) they
appeared in such great numbers that the ground
under their roosting place was covered with their
dung above a foot high, during one night. The
Indians went out, killed them with sticks and
came home loaded. At such a time the noise the
pigeons make is such that it is difficult for people
near them to hear or understand each other. They
do not always gather in such numbers in one place,

often scattering over the great forests. (Zeisberger,
1910, p. 66.)

oll

He is speaking here of pigeon hunting on
the fall return-flight, when the pigeons
nested for only one night; and these must
have been old birds that his tame Indians
knocked out of their nests. These Indians
had guns. It is curious that Zeisberger, who
lived for three years in the pigeon-nesting
country near Tionesta, Pa., says very little
about pigeons during this period.

The process of taking squabs and melting
down the fat for domestic purposes as a sub-
stitute for butter and lard is reported as a
general practice among Indians and many
whites: tribes are not specified (Wilson,
1812, vol. 5, p. 107). In Virginia the early
settlers took pigeons in winter. John Law-
son (1709) speaks of prodigious flocks of pi-
geons during 1701-1702; and of the Indians
of Carolina he writes: ‘““You may find sev-
eral Indian towns of not above seventeen
houses, that have more than one hundred
gallons of pigeon’s oil or fat; they using it
with pulse or bread as we do butter, . . . the
Indians take a light and go among them in
the night and bring away some thousands,
killing them with long poles, as they roost in
the trees’”’ (Lawson, 1860, pp. 78-79).

This seems to be the only specific refer-
ence for the Southeast, and one can not es-
timate to how many tribes it applies. West-
ward in Tennessee we lack eye-witness
accounts of the Chickasaws taking pigeons;
but within 50 miles of Memphis, Lusher’s
map of 1835 specifies ‘“‘Pigeon Roost Creek’’
which Myer says was also the name of the
short-cut trail or ‘‘Pigeon Roost Road,”’
leading between the home of the Chicka-
saws in northern Mississippi and the Chick-
asaw Bluffs. Here there were vast roosts in
heavily timbered bottoms, which must have
been famous far and wide, as they are re-
membered in place names. Myer thinks
they were known to the Chickasaw and
were the probable reason for the trail
(Myer, 1928, pp. 817-819).

To the north in the Great Lakes area, the
Siouan-speaking Winnebago of Wisconsin
poked pigeons out of their nests with long
poles after the manner of Lawson’s Indians
of Carolina. They considered pigeons their
‘“ohief”’ birds, and hunts were undertaken in
season when the chief decided to give a

312

feast. They were prepared by broiling or
steeping and had a delicious taste. Large
quantities were taken after storms when
many died of exposure (Radin, 1923, pp.
112-1138).

It is among the Potawatomi of Michigan,
however, that we find the closest approxi-
mation to Seneca pigeon hunting. In Chief
Simon Pokagon’s classic portrayal of the
Michigan nestings, which Forbush has
called the best description of the nesting of
these birds, the Potawatomi techniques are
those of the Seneca. He says: “‘A pigeon
nesting was always a source of revenue to
our people. Whole tribes would wigwam in
the brooding place. They seldom killed the
old birds, but made great preparation to se-
cure their, young, out of which the squaws
made squab butter and smoked and dried
them by thousands for future use. Yet, un-
der our manner of securing them, they con-
tinued to increase.’’!°

The Ottawa ate pigeons (Kinietz, 1940,
p. 240), but we find no details as to their
methods of hunting them.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Once more we have seen the reminis-
cences of a few old Senecas, bolstered by
historical fact, grow into a study of mono-
graphic proportion. As usual, Seneca tradi-
tion clarifies some points on which history is
silent, while recorded history serves to date
the disappearance of one more activity that
old Senecas recall as being formerly part of
their yearly economic cycle. In the case of
pigeon hunting most of our materials come
from members of the Cornplanter Band of
Senecas in northwestern Pennsylvania.
These people have been generally disre-
garded by ethnologists because they have
been so long acculturated to white ways,
but the authors of this paper have long sus-
pected that the Cornplanter people could
still yield information on material culture of
hunting, with which they are still preoccu-
pied. In the present study of the last pas-
senger pigeon hunts of the Cornplanters,
Willie Gordon and others have contributed
to the increase of the literature on this ex-

10 Chief Simon Pokagon, from The Chautau-
quan 22 (20). Nov. 1895; in Mershon, 1907,
p. 54.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

tinct species. During the last years of their
annual migration to the pigeon roosts
around Sheffield and Byromtown, in War-
ren and Forest Counties, Pa., the Corn-
planter people came into contact with the
professional white pigeoners at the climax
of their activities in the late 1870’s. After
this, the birds for the most part disappeared
under the relentless persecution of the pro-
fessional netter.

While it is apparent that from early times
the Iroquois—notably the Onondaga and
Cayuga—set nets for pigeons, both station-
ary nets on high places and trip nets at salt
licks, nest-raiding seems to have been the
predominant hunting technique among the
Iroquois. This was certainly true of the
Seneca, who seem to have used no nets ex-
cept when they hired out to white pigeon-
ers, aS was true of the Indians of Massachu-
setts, New Netherland, Carolina, Wisconsin
and Michigan. In aboriginal times squabs
were generally considered more palatable
than adult birds, and the pigeon roostings
offered such abundant store of provender—
both meat and oil—for the taking, that net-
ting and archery, mainly effective with adult
birds, were of secondary importance. There
was no market for the adult birds, then, as
trade was undeveloped. Nor does there seem
to have been any sport in Indian life akin to
trap-shooting.

The Iroquois regarded the annual return
of the passenger pigeon as one of the bless-
ings ordained by the Master of Life. The
sudden arrival of great flocks of birds to
nest in the neighboring forests not only re-
lieved the economic strain at a period when
they were sometimes reduced to eating their
seed corn, but also justified their faith in the
bounties of nature. For this great blessing
they were duly thankful, and they prayed
that this condition might continue always.
They allowed the birds to nest and to hatch
their young; and the nests were not dis-
turbed until the young were ready to leave.
They believed that the practice of taking

squabs at their prime and of allowing the -

adult birds to go free to reproduce the spe-
cies was a measure of conservation, which
was probably true under the circumstances.
Our Seneca. informants were shocked at the
way professional pigeoners violated nature

Oct. 15, 1943 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

by indiscriminate slaughter of old and
young birds alike and by the relentless pur-
suit of the flocks from place to place.

The Iroquois ascribed human traits to the
animal and plant world. It is small wonder
that the folklore of these people observes
that the passenger pigeons were the one bird
that congregated in communal settlements
like Indian villages, and that folk-tales
ascribe to the pigeon colonies a humanlike
society. An albino pigeon as chief fulfills the
role of the sacred white animal, a common
belief among woodland Indians. In a myth-
ological encounter, the culture hero, a pure
youth, meets the sacred white pigeon during
a@ vision and enters into a compact with
him. Rules are established governing the
conduct of the hunt and the taking of
squabs. These data cover such details as the
master of the hunt who as in later times or-
ders the migration, keeps the crowd to-
gether, places a “‘pole across the path at
night”’; keeps separate the camps for mater-
nal kindred. Even the construction of lean-
tos is covered. Continuing the pattern for
Iroquois origin legends, the myth provides
the rationale for ceremonies attending the
hunts of later years: the camp caller, morn-
ing and evening thanksgiving, a ceremony
for propitiating the pigeons with an offering
of trinkets and sacred tobacco which—as al-
ways in Iroquois ceremonialism—is the in-
termediary between man and the spirit-
world. Moreover, we, find here an origin
legend for the Pigeon Dance of later Iro-
quois ceremony; and its tenuous connection
with the Maple Thanksgiving Festival is
strengthened by the fact that pigeon hunt-
ing followed soon after the sugaring and
lasted well into planting time. The youth re-
lates his vision to the clan chiefs who carry
out his contract; they call a council of the
people to learn the new dance. Two dance
leaders precede the whirling column, and an
explanatory element about the counter-
clockwise movement of social dancers repre-
sents the projection of a modern usage into
ancient times.

Whether Indians or whites originated the
pigeon-netting techniques is a question that
can not be resolved entirely. The “‘nettings’”’
at the Syracuse salt licks and westward into
the Cayuga country may not have been the

313

same as the techniques of the professional
netters. On the contrary, the complicated
set-nets of the white pigeoner, with their
weights, releasing poles, stool pigeons, decoy
baskets, etc., seem to have emanated from
southern Europe. They were used in New
England as early as 1660.

We have shown that the Indian method
involved knocking the young out of the
nests with long poles or cutting down the
trees to get at them. We must accept the
Seneca testimony that they used European
devices when assisting white pigeoners, for
the Iroquois knew other types of traps, and
it was not beyond their abilities to devise
adequate bird-trapping devices had they so
desired, or had they any interest in taking
the adult birds. There is a possibility that
there was some trade latterly in splint decoy
baskets of the type Indians sometimes
make, but the specimens examined do not
appear to have been made by any of the In-
dian tribes of the northeast.

Willie Gordon’s narrative of his first pi-
geon hunt, from which this study sprang, is
a tale of the late period of acculturation, of
course. It represents the best of the last
shreds of Cornplanter Seneca ethnology,
which can be made to serve a useful purpose
in reconstruction.

We have said something of the disappear-
ance of the passenger pigeon, principally be-
cause the last nestings in Pennsylvania were
in the area under study and to show that
the stock explanation given by the Indians,
and by many whites, is only a bit of recur-
rent folklore. The Seneca by themselves
could not and would not have depleted this
species.

Finally, it may be said that the passenger
pigeon had a definite place in the hunting
economy of the Iroquoian tribes from very
early times. This is indicated by the evi-
dence of archeology in the area. Although
the accounts of pigeon hunting among the
other northeastern tribes from New Eng-
land south to the Carolinas are fragmentary,
we believe that the material we have col-
lected for the Senecas is probably fairly
typical of other tribes throughout the range
of the passenger pigeon. At least, the evi-
dence in the way of comparative distribu-
tion, fragmentary as it is, does not reveal

314

much cultural diversity in hunting this spe-
cies, from tribe to tribe. Perhaps this is
obvious: there were limitations to ways of
killing squabs.

APPENDIX

The discovery of oil in territory near and
in the pigeon country in the 1860’s was na-
turally attended by very rapid extension of
railroads all through this area. The increased
slaughter of wild pigeons, especially by pro-
fessionals who came from all over the coun-
try attracted by the market facilities
provided by the better transportation, was
attended by a decline in the size and num-
ber of pigeon flights. By the Acts of May 1
1873, and of May 1, 1876, Pennsylvania at-
tempted to protect the birds, using the
theory that disturbance of adults on their
“roostings’”’ was the cause of the trouble.
This was not effective; so the Act of June
10, 1881, extended protection specifically to
the squabs, banning the taking of any birds,
young or old, with gun, net, or trap within
a mile of the nesting grounds. A heavy li-
cense fee of $50 was to be collected by each
county in which the trapper worked.

During this period The Warren Mail, a
weekly paper in the largest town near the
pigeon grounds, was edited by an honest,
high-minded gentleman greatly interested
in law enforcement. His paper makes only
casual mention of pigeons before 1878. The
flight of that year was heavy, attended by
large numbers of professionals from every-
where who paid no attention to the laws—
and by a rising of the editor’s dander on ac-
count of this. For us the result is an unusu-
ally good account of what went on in the pi-
geon woods. We extract from the Mail’s
weekly reports enough to give some idea of
the extent and character of these activities.

Mar. 18, 1878: ‘‘Pigeons were seen flying over
town last Thursday morning [i.e., Mar. 7]. Too
high for shooting.”’

Mar. 19, 1878: ‘Pigeons are feeding and flying
around Warren and the shot-gun squad are wide
awake.”

Mar. 25, 1878: “The pigeons have been flying
in large flocks in this section for several days.
They are reported as nesting in the wild woods of
Forest County, beyond Sheffield. Numerous

pigeon catchers are at Sheffield, Kane, Tidioute,
Tionesta and all along the line. Last week nearly

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

100 barrels of dead birds were shipped from Shef-_
field. At this rate the pigeons will soon be ex-
terminated.”

Same issue: Quotes from the Tionesta [Forest
County] Republican to the effect that ‘“‘Sheffield is
the shipping point for large quantities of pigeons.
A small army of men are trapping them at their
roosting and feeding places in Forest Co. It is
alleged that large numbers have been shot near
their roosting places, which act is contrary to law.
In 3 days last w eek about 50,000 pigeons were
shipped.”’

Same issue: Again quoting the Tionesta Repub-
lican: “The pigeon trappers are not doing very
big business here, we believe, owing to the dif-
ficulty they experience in keeping spectators and
hunters at a sufficient distance from their base of
operations as not to scare the birds. The gang
up about Balltown [up the Tionesta Creek, below
Blue Jay mouth], however, are scooping them in
at a great rate. They took 80 dozen in 2 days.
They ship them to Sheffield for New York where,
we hear, they sell for $3 per dozen.”

April 4, 1878: “The pigeons shipped to N. Y.
from Warren and Forest Counties are sold at
$2.00 a dozen.” .

April 23, 1878: “Up to last Saturday [the 20th]
291,741 pigeons had been shipped from Sheffield.
Probably nearly as many have gone from Tionesta
while some 40,000 have been shipped from
Tidioute. Over half a million birds have been
caught, for which probably $75,000 were received.
Who says this ‘neck of the woods’ is not produc-
tive?”’

April 30, 1878: “Mr. Gemmill [the freight agent
at Sheffield] informs us that the total number of
birds shipped from Sheffield up to April 27 is
353,846. Lately, the price of dead birds is low and
14,600 live ones were shipped during the last
week. Counting 50,000 from Tionesta and 40,000
from Tidioute, which is no doubt below the actual
figure, we have 443,846. Some have been shipped
from Kane and other points while many have
been carried away by shootists. It is probably safe
to say that 500,000 bir ds, dead or alive, have been
taken in this section.’

May 14, 1878: “The ese of pigeons, dead
and alive, shipped from Sheffield up to and in-
cluding Miondar 7 May 18, is 505,516! So says
Mr. Gemmill, the freight agent, who has the
exact number. They are still nesting in the woods
of Forest County. The pigeon men say the Michi-
gan birds have come to this ‘neck of the woods’.”

May 28, 1878: Quoting the Tionesta Republican:
“Davy Hilands shipped 500 pigeons to N. Y. this
morning—the first that have been shipped from
this station for some time. The trappers are now
operating near Brookston and also about Kane
and altogether the pigeons get no rest at all.”

June 11, 1878: ‘‘Pigeons are still being shipped
from Sheffield. Up to last Monday over 700,000
pigeons have been shipped and 200,000 from Kane
Mr. Gemmill tells us that there are over 2,000

Oct. 15, 19438 FENTON AND DEARDORFF: PIGEON HUNTS OF CORNPLANTER SENECAS

dozen pigeons in coops awaiting shipment. They
are now nesting up Kinzua Creek on Chapel
Fork.”

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GuRTIN, JEREMIAH, and Hewitt, J. N. B.
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1918.

DearporFrFr, Merrie H. The Cornplanter
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Eaton, Eton H. Birds of New York. New
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‘FRENCH, JOHN C. The passenger pigeon in
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316

BOTAN Y.—New grasses from South America.!

tional Herbarium.

Among recent collections of South Ameri-
can grasses received by the U. 8S. National
Herbarium are three undescribed species,
one each from Colombia, Uruguay, and
Curacao, one of the Dutch West Indies. Al-
though this island is popularly regarded as
one of the Antilles, biologically it belongs
with Venezuela.

Stipa rosengurttii Chase, sp. nov.

Perennis, caespitosa; culmi erecti, subfili-
formes, 25-85 cm alti; folia basi crebra, vaginis
inferioribus dense imbricatis; ligula circa 1 mm
longa; laminae involutae, filiformes, 6-12 cm
longae, interdum longiores, erectae, hispidulo-
scabrae vel scaberulae; panicula 4-6 cm longa,
ramis erectis, paucifloris; spiculae brevipedicel-
latae; glumae 3-nerves, acuminatae, margini-
bus hyalinis; gluma prima 6-7 mm longa,
gluma secunda 5-5.5 mm longa; lemma con-
volutum, 3.3-3.4 mm longum, 1—1.2 mm latum,
anguste obovatum, fuscum, tuberculatum, co-
ronatum, infra coronam constrictum, dorso
pubescens, callo brevi, longe barbato, pilis
lemmate 2-3-plo brevioribus; arista 1.8-2 cm
longa, bigeniculata.

A cespitose perennial; culms erect, subfili-
form, 25 to 85 cm tall with 2 or 3 nodes above
the base, the nodes ascending-pilose or in age
glabrescent; leaves crowded at the base, the
lower sheaths overlapping and forming a swol-
len base, the lowermost relatively broad and
loose, appressed pilose at the very base between
the strong nerves, the middle and upper sheaths
glabrous or scaberulous; ligule firm, about
1 mm long; blades involute, filiform, 6 to 12 em
long in the type specimen (to 25 em in Rosen-
gurtt B 216), erect or nearly so, hispidulous-
scabrous to scaberulous; panicle long-exserted,
4 to 6 cm long in the type specimen (to 12 em
in Rosengurtt B 216), the few short branches
erect, few-flowered, the axis and branches
angled, scabrous; spikelets on erect sparsely
hispidulous pedicels 1.5 to 3 mm long; glumes
firm-membranaceous with hyaline margins,
acuminate, 3-nerved, the first 6 to 7 mm long,
the second 5 to 5.5 mm long, the delicate apex

1 Received June 26, 1943.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 10

AGNES CHASE, United States Na-

of both readily breaking off; lemma convolute,
3.3 to 3.4 mm long, 1 to 1.2 mm wide, the
callus very short with a dense ring of stiff,
white hairs from one third to half as long as
the lemma, the body of the lemma narrowly
obovate, brown, finely tuberculate throughout,
with a line of pubescence on the back extending
nearly to the summit, the summit of the lemma
smooth, cylindric forming a whitish crown
stiffly ciliate to erose, the lemma constricted
below the crown; awn 1.8 to 2 cm long, twice
geniculate.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no.
1819591, collected in a moist meadow, Monzén-
Heber, Estacién Juan Jackson, Province of
Soriano, Uruguay, December 3, 1942, by Gal-
linal, Aragone, Bergalli, Campal, and Rosen-

-—gurtt, PE-5120.

This species, with its dense tufts of filiform
blades, narrow panicle, and plump tuberculate
lemmas resembles Piptochaetium. It belongs in
the section Stephanostipa Speg. of Stipa.

It is a pleasure to name this species for Dr.
Bernardo Rosengurtt, a keen student of the
grasses of his country, whose collections in the
past few years have more than doubled the
number of specimens of Uruguay grasses in the
U.S. National Herbarium.

The only other collection known is a taller,
overmature specimen, Rosengurtt B 216, from
Rio Negro and Arroyo [?] Palleros, Province of
Cerro Largo, Uruguay, January, 1936.

Paspalum curassavicum Chase, sp. nov.

Perenne, dense caespitosum, glabrum, sto- -
loniferum, stolonibus elongatis arcuatis, circa
50 cm longis; culmi erecti, foliosi, 30-40 cm
alti, ramosi; vaginae arctae, imbricatae; ligula
ciliata, 0.5 mm longa; laminae planae, 4-12 cm
longae, 2.5-4 mm latae; racemi 2, conjugati,
erecti, 3-3.5 em longi; rhachis 0.7 mm lata;
spiculae solitariae, 2.2-2.4 mm longae, 1.1 mm
latae, ovato-ellipticae; gluma secunda et lemma
sterile aequalia, 3-nervia; fructus 2 mm longus.

An erect densely cespitose glabrous peren-
nial, with a hard knotted base and brittle
arching stolons 50 em or more long, with erect
leafy branches from knotted bases, the stolons
compressed or sulcate; culms rather rigid, leafy,

-Ocr. 15, 1943

30 to 40 em tall, only one flowering to 8 to 15
sterile culms, all branching at the middle nodes,
the branches erect or nearly so, sometimes in
small fascicles; sheaths close, overlapping, the
lower two or three with reduced blades from
rudimentary to 5 mm long; ligule a ring of hairs
0.5 mm long; blades rather firm, flat, 4 to 12 cm
long, 2.5 to 4 mm wide, rather sharp-pointed,
sometimes with a few hairs at base; racemes 2,
included at base, erect, 3 to 3.5 cm long; rachis
0.7 mm wide; spikelets not imbricate, 2.2 to
2.4 mm. long, 1.1 mm wide, ovate-elliptic, pale;
second glume and sterile lemma equal, mi-
nutely pointed beyond the fruit, 3-nerved (the
midnerve occasionally suppressed) ; fruit 2 mm
long, the tip of the palea enclosed.

Type in U. S. National Herbarium, no.
1762213, collected under tall opuntias, west of
Hato, near north coast of Curacao, February
27, 1940, by Agnes Chase (no. 12282). Du-
plicate type in the Herbario Nacional de
Venezuela, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria,
Caracas.

Known only from the type collection, from
soil of disintegrated coral and shells. Only a
small colony of overmature plants found. It is
possible that in a favorable season inflores-
cences may be more plentiful. The species be-
longs in the Disticha group, related to Paspalum
vaginatum Swartz and P. distichum L. It differs
from both in its cespitose erect habit and arching
stolons, in the ciliate ligule, and in the smaller
spikelets.

Paspalum reclinatum Chase, sp. nov.

Annum, glabrum; culmi decumbentes, ra-
mosi, 50-65 em longi, compressi ‘vel sulcati;
vaginae laxae, subcompressae, glabrae vel mar-
ginibus obscure pubescentibus; ligula circa 0.2
mm longa; laminae planae, flaccidae, patentes,
3-9 cm longae, 4-8 mm latae; racemi 8-13,
maturitate patens vel reflexi, 1-2.5 cm longi;

CHASE: NEW GRASSES FROM SOUTH AMERICA

317

rhachis 0.7-1 mm lata, apice spiculam gerens;
spiculae solitariae, vix imbricatae, 2.5-2.7 mm
longae, 1—-1.1 mm latae, lanceolato-ellipticae,
glabrae; gluma secunda et lemma sterile
aequalia, tenuia, 3-nervia, fructum superantia;
fructus pallidus, laevis.

A decumbent, straggling, annual, glabrous as
a whole; culms rooting at the lower nodes, 50
to 65 cm long, bearing a few flowering branches
nearly as long as the primary culm; culm
compressed or grooved; sheaths rather loose,
subcompressed, glabrous or very obscurely
pubescent along the margin; ligule about 0.2
mm long; blades flat, thin, spreading, 3 to
9 cm long, 4 to 8 mm wide, rounded at base,
abruptly acuminate, glabrous or very ob-
scurely puberulent back of the ligule, the
margin scaberulous; racemes 8 to 13, at ma-
turity spreading or reflexed on a flattened axis,
6 to 7 cm long, the racemes 1 to 2.5 cm long;
rachis 0.7 to 1 mm wide, minutely pubescent
at the base and with a spikelet at the apex;
spikelets solitary, approximate but not imbri-
cate, pale to faintly yellowish, 2.5 to 2.7 mm
long, 1 to 1.1 mm wide, lanceolate-elliptic,
glabrous; glume and sterile lemma loose, very
thin, 3-nerved, slightly exceeding the fruit;
fruit about 2.2 mm long, pale, smooth and shin-
ing.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no.
1795921, collected in Colombia, Dept. Cauca;
Cordillera Occidental: Cerro de Munchique,
Hoya del Rio Tambite, 2,000—2,500 meters al-
titude, July 16, 1939, by E. Pérez Arbeldez and
J. Cuatrecasas (no. 6211).

This species belongs in the Dissecta group,
and resembles Paspalum prostratum Scribn. &
Merr. It differs from that in being glabrous as
a whole, in the narrower rachis with a spikelet
at the apex, and in the slightly larger spikelets,
with the loose glume and lemma exceeding the
fruit.

318

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 10

ZOOLOGY.—A new genus of Virginia millipeds related to Scytonotus and a new

species from Florida.}

In the summer of 1937, while enroute to
Florida, I collected a number of immature
specimens of a milliped in leaf litter near
Panorama, on the Sky Line Drive, Va. The
specimens were recognized as an unde-
scribed species of the order Merocheta, but
continued search in the time available
yielded no mature animals and only a few
more young ones. The locality was revisited
in 1938 with similar results, and farther
south, in Tennessee near the Virginia line,
additional young were collected. Since then
several entomologist friends of mine have
unsuccessfully attempted to find specimens
in the region.

The oldest individuals thus far collected
have 18 segments, with the gonopods of the
males represented by low, rounded mounds,
although in other respects the animals
might pass as fully grown. In dorsal sculp-
ture and form of the pore-bearing callus of
the lateral keels they appear more closely
related to Scytonotus than to any other
American genus, although the keels project
farther from the body. However, this does
not preclude inclusion in the Sphaerotricho-
pidae, to which Scytonotus belongs, and it is
expected that mature animals may have 19
segments, as does that genus.

Since there is no other American milliped
bearing close resemblance to the new Vir-
ginia form, illustrated in Fig. 1, its presenta-
tion as a new genus is hazarded although
based on juvenal material. With the exten-
sive collecting that has been done in the
region about Washington it is somewhat
unusual that this milliped remained hidden
so long. Its name has been chosen in recog-
nition of this and because of its somewhat
shaggy appearance. In order that descrip-
tion and illustration of important features
of mature specimens may be made, it is
hoped that naturalists visiting the Blue
Ridge region will be stimulated to collect
full-grown individuals of this interesting
addition to the fauna adjacent to Wash-
ington.

1 Received June 10, 1943.

H. F. Loomis, Coconut Grove, Fla.

The second milliped treated here belongs
to the established xystodesmid genus Eury-
merodesmus Broelemann, most males of
which have two elevated lobes of varying
length and shape, according to the species,
projecting from the margin of the orifice
through which the gonopods are thrust.
The new member of this genus, discovered
in north Florida, is by far the smallest
species in it and shows less coloration.

Types deposited in the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.; para-
types are in the U. S. National Museum,
Washington, D. C.

Lasiolathus, n. gen.

Type.—Lasiolathus virgunicus, n. sp.

Diagnosis.—Differing from Scytonotus in the
smaller size, broader body, more convex and
tuberculate dorsum with longer setae, serrate
margins of the segments, and the greater pro-
duction outward of the lateral carinae.

Description—Body small, relatively broad
and probably composed of 19 segments at
maturity; dorsum evenly convex and densely
beset with tiny, sharply conic, setiferous tuber-
cles arranged in a semblance of transverse rows.

Head large, exceeding the first segment in
width but not so wide as segment 2; vertex
densely pubescent and with a pronounced
median furrow; antennae moderately long, sub-
clavate, increasing in thickness to joint 6.

First segment subelliptic in shape; front
margin bordered by numerous setiferous teeth
or tubercles projecting upward and forward;
seta-bearing tubercles of the surface scattered
instead of seriate as are those of the other seg-
ments.

Second, third, and fourth segments with
lateral carinae produced forward, those of the
ensuing segments projecting outward, and only
on the two segments preceding the last are the
carinae posteriorly produced; dorsal tubercles
in five or six transverse rows, in addition to
which both the dorsal and ventral surfaces are
finely granular; outer and posterior margins of
the segments with projecting tubercles similar
to those of the dorsal surface; pores each open-

Oct. 15, 19438

ing from a quite large and almost smooth
swelling near the posterior corner of segments
mao 10; 12, 138, 15, 16, and, at. maturity,
possibly from segment 17 also; metazonites
sharply raised high above the prozonites, which
have the surface finely reticulated; metazonites
with finely fimbriate supplementary posterior
margin.

Last segment with surface minutely granular
and setiferous but lacking tubercles as found on
the other segments; apex with four long setae.

Anterior and posterior sternum of each seg-
ment broad, separated by a transverse depres-
sion; each with a longitudinal median furrow
deepest at its anterior end.

Lasiolathus virginicus, n. sp.
Fig. 1

Numerous specimens with 17 and 18 seg-
ments, an 18-segmented male being the type,
collected at Panorama, Sky Line Drive, Va.,
July 13, 1937, and June 21, 1938; three speci-
mens with 16 or 17 segments collected at
Jonesboro, Tenn., June 25, 1938, by E. M. and
H. F. Loomis.

Description.—Living color very light pink,
probably darker at maturity.

Body stout, about five times longer than
wide; actual length 9 to 10 mm, width 1.8 to
2 mm; dorsum strongly convex.

Head with vertex very convex and with a
deep median sulcus, the surface minutely gran-
ular and densely beset with short, erect hairs;
frontal area less granular and with fewer hairs;
clypeal area smooth, shining and with a still
smaller number of hairs; in front of the an-
tennal socket and extending obliquely outward
from it there is a pronounced swelling of the
surface; lateral margin in front of the socket
emarginate; antennae rather short and thick,
joints 3 and 6 subequal, exceeding the others in
length but joint 6 thickest of all.

First segment much narrower than the head;
broadly and evenly rounded in front and with
about 22 to 24 small, conical tubercles project-
ing upward and forward from the margin, each
with a seta at the apex; perhaps 80 more similar
tubercles are crowded together on the surface
but these are inclined toward the rear.

Second segment considerably wider than the
head; lateral carinae produced forward, those of
segments 3 and 4 decreasingly so and all others

LOOMIS: NEW MILLIPEDS

319

with the carinae projecting directly outward;
outer margin of the carinae with five or six
projecting tubercles, the first of which is formed
by a continuation of the slightly thickened an-
terior margin of the carina and lacks an apical

Fig. 1.—Lasiolathus virginicus, n. sp.:
18-segmented male. X 12.

seta; on pore-bearing carinae several of the
marginal tubercles are replaced by the large
pore callus at the posterior corner; posterior
margin of segments with 20 to 24 projecting
setiferous tubercles; dorsum of segments 2 to 4
with setiferous tubercles in five irregular rows,
those of the ensuing segments in six rows except

320

that on the last segment no tubercles are pres-
ent and the setae are scattered and reduced in
number; surface of the tubercles, the intervals
between them, and the ventral surfaces, includ-
ing the sterna, finely granular; anterior corners
of the lateral carinae rounded in outline, the
posterior corners also rounded and not pro-
duced backward except on the penultimate and
antepenultimate segments where small angles
are developed.

Last segment with a short, slightly deflexed
apex.

_ Eurymerodesmus minimus, n. sp.
Fig. 2

One mature male (type) and three immature
specimens collected at Marianna, Fla., October
27, 1941, by E. M. Loomis.

Diagnosis. —This is by far the smallest mem-
ber of the genus as it is known today; the dilute
color may. be diagnostic, although in older
specimens it may become more intensified; the
gonopods differ from those of other members
of the genus. :

Description —Length 15 mm, width 2 mm.

Color of living animal translucent white with
a light pinkish tinge, which was lost soon after
preservation in alcohol.

Head with a shallow but definite groove on
the vertex; labrum with a forwardly projecting
fringe of 24 to 30 setae; behind the labral
fringe is a clypeal series of about 20 stout setae,
and still farther back, near the junction of the
clypeus with the front, 2 to 4 erect setae cross
the median surface, and a group of about 5
setae occurs on each side near the labral
margin; the clypeal-frontal setae longer than
those of the two anterior series; antennae with
joints 2 to 5 subequal in length, somewhat
exceeded by joint 6; longitudinal ridge under
the mandibulary stipe of uniform height, end-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 33, NO. 10

ing simply instead of in an incurved process
as in males identified as Z. mundus Chamberlin
from between Duncanville and Cedar Hill,
Dallas County, Tex.

Segments of the usual form but with the lat-
eral margins somewhat more thickened than in
mundus.

Male with the ventral surface of the legs, and
the sterna, somewhat hairy, but not to the
great extent found in mundus; sterna of pre-
genital legs 3 to 7 lacking special processes;
claws of male legs lacking a bulbous process at
the base as in mundus, a character not previ-
ously mentioned for that species.

Fig. 2.—Eurymerodesmus

minimus, nN.
Gonopod, lo:e of sternum, and base of eighth leg;
lateral view.

Sp.:

Margin of the opening around the gonopods
raised on each side at its outer posterior limits
into a broad triangular lobe, the base of which
is on a line extending obliquely outward and
backward, the process raised only about to the
height of the base of the first joint of the eighth
legs; posterior or inner face of the process with
a few erect setae; process on one side of the
body widely separated from the opposite one,
the surface between the processes descending
from the sternum of the eighth legs toward the
inside of the body with its edge very much
lower than the margin elsewhere. |

Gonopod as shown in lateral view in Fig. 2.

Eranotocy.—The last passenger pigeon hunts of the -Corpla
. Senecas. Witii1am N. FENTON AND MERLE lee DzEAR

eg Botany,—New grasses from South America.

ZOOLOGY. ae new genus of Virginia millipeds related to Seyton :
a new species from Florida. H. F, ‘Loomis. . ae Daa pate

NOVEMBER 15, 1943 No. 11

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

NovEMBER 15, 1943

No. 11

A scientific recreation—the extent and accuracy of our measurable concepts.!| HARVEY
L. Curtis, National Bureau of Standards.

Before giving consideration to the subject
I have chosen for this evening’s address, I
wish to assure members of the Washington
Academy of Sciences that I am not unmind-
ful of the fact that this nation .is in the
midst of a war which demands all our intel-
lectual acumen as well as our physical stam-
ina. It would seem fitting that the address
of the retiring president should deal with
some of the problems that are concerned
with the war effort. However, any scientific
topic connected with the war could not be
adequately treated because of restrictions
imposed by military necessity. That would
limit a discourse involving the war effort
to an emotional subject that would either
stimulate our egotism by praising our ac-
complishments or would raise our morale by
appealing to our sense of responsibility as
leaders in science. I am convinced that no
pronouncements of mine would appreciably
influence your morale. Concerning egotism,
I prefer to make no comments. I have,
therefore, chosen a subject that has no rela-
tion to this war. My purpose is to furnish a
little recreation to those who are scientifi-
cally minded.

The description of the universe in which
we live is facilitated by our ability to evalu-
ate numerically many of our concepts con-
cerning it. Thus a length can be expressed
numerically in feet, a mass in kilograms, a
time in hours, and other quantities in terms
of appropriate units. The concepts that can
be expressed by reference to a single unit
are the simplest of those which are recog-
nized by human beings. Other concepts,
such as heat, light, and sound, require for

1 Address of the Retiring President of the
Washington Academy of Sciences delivered at the
317th meeting of the Academy, February 18,
1943. Received March 15, 1943.

their evaluation two or more numbers, each
associated with its own unit, and the rela-
tionship between these numbers may be
expressed by means of a mathematical equa-
tion of some complexity. Still other con-
cepts such as odors, emotions, and physical
pain ean not yet be numerically evaluated.
This address will be concerned only with the
simplest concepts, so that any quantity to
be discussed can be completely evaluated
by a single number when associated with a
specific unit.

The accuracy with which a given object
or quantity may be measured can be ex-
pressed numerically. Thus the equatorial di-
ameter of the earth, a distance of more than
12% million meters, has now been measured
with an accuracy of about 1 part in 300,000.
The uncertainty in the value of the diameter
is, in this case, solely the result of errors in
the experimental determination, since both
the standard meter and the equatorial di-
ameter are definite to a much higher degree
of accuracy. However, if our standard of
length were a-wooden meter stick, which
might change in length from day to day by
a part in a thousand, then the accuracy of
determining the equatorial diameter would
be limited by the definiteness of the stand-
ard and might be 5,000 or 10,000 meters in-
stead of the experimental error of 50 meters.
It is the aim of all standardizing laborato-
ries so to maintain their fundamental stand-
ards that the accuracy of any measurement
involving them will depend either on the ex-
perimental method used in making the
measurement or on the indefiniteness of the
object or quantity to be measured, and not
on the definiteness of the standard.

The accuracy that can be attained in
measuring a quantity depends on its magni-
tude. A very large or a very small distance,

321

; tg
#5

322

or mass, or time, or any other quantity can
not be measured with as much accuracy as
one of intermediate value. It is of interest to
trace the accuracy of measurement in a few
of our concepts throughout their entire
range.

Another interesting feature of our simple
concepts is the extent of their range. The
evaluation of the range of any concept re-
quires that the largest and smallest object
or quantity of this concept be measured in
terms of the same unit. Then the extent of
the concept may be taken as the ratio of the
value for the largest known object or quan-
tity to the value of the smallest. The meas-
urements must be in terms of the same unit,
but the extent of any concept is independent
of the unit used in making the measure-
ments.

Our evening recreation will therefore
consist in considering the accuracy of
measurement of various physical quantities
throughout their entire range and in giving
an estimate of the extent of the range of the
same quantities. For each of the physical
quantities considered there have been se-
lected a number of familiar objects, which
range in size from the smallest to the largest
for that quantity. For each physical quan-
tity there has been prepared a chart show-
ing the relationship between the size of an
object and the accuracy with which it can
be measured. A comparison of the charts
will show interesting similarities and dif-
ferences between the quantities.

The three basic quantities in our system
of physical measurements are length, mass,
and time. Each can be measured over a
wide range. Also, the accuracy with which
measurements can be made in every part of
the range of each is known. Hence, they
have certain features in common. A loga-
rithmic plot of accuracy of measurements
vs. range will be made using the same rela-
tive scale for each, so that comparison can
be made of the three curves.

The plot of length or distance shown in
Fig. 1 has for its basic ordinate the meter
and for its other ordinates multiples or sub-
multiples of the meter. The abscissas are
the accuracy of measurement. The scale of
distance extends both below and above the
unit line, each step representing a factor of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 11

1,000. The scale of accuracy, the abscissa,
which has for its unit line one part in one,
extends in the positive direction only; each
step representing a factor of 10.

The distances indicated on the chart and
the accuracy with which they can be meas-
ured will now be considered in detail. The
object corresponding to the unit ordinate
line is the standard meter bar. Two meter
bars can be compared with an accuracy of a
part in 10 million, or perhaps under very
favorable conditions to a part in 30 million.
One can appreciate the attainable accuracy
by noting that the error in comparing two
meter bars is about one-twentieth of the
diameter of a fiber of spider silk.

Be
Se a
REBAR
Sun to Alpha Centauri BESRERo
een aE Hest
2-82205 Earth to Moon LS *
°2z107 |Diameter of Earth BARRE
Primary base line ReRSSE OS
ee a
feter bar .: '
Millimeter standard BRRee Ac
aoe BREE ans
6.4x10~-/ |Wave length of cadmium "a
75x1079 Separation of H nuclei BEE 288
4.6x10-3piemeter of proton Hott 2

Fic. 1.—The accuracy of measurements of length.

The base line used in primary triangula-
tion, usually a kilometer, can be measured
with an accuracy of a millimeter, or a part
in a million. The diameter of the earth,
about 12 million meters, is known with an
accuracy of only a part in 300,000. The
larger distances are all astronomical. The
accuracy decreases as the distance increases.
The values for the accuracy both in this
chart and those to follow were, for the most
part, either obtained from published data or
have been supplied by men experienced in
the different fields. In only a few cases is the
author’s judgment involved.

The greatest distance that can be meas-
ured is the diameter of the known universe.
The distance to the farthest observed neb-
ula is considered to be of the order of 500
million light years. Assuming this to be the
radius of our known universe, the diameter
is 10% meters. The 200-inch telescope is
expected to double this. |

Nov. 15, 1943

For distances less than a meter, which are
plotted below the unit line, the accuracy
decreases rapidly as the measured distance
becomes smaller. For millimeter standards
the accuracy has dropped to a part in a few
hundred thousand. The distance between
the nuclei of a hydrogen molecule is known
only to a part in a thousand, while the
diameter of a proton, the smallest known
object, is known only to 10 per cent.

Exceptions to the uniform decrease in
accuracy with decrease in size are the wave
lengths of light. The universally accepted
standard is the wave length of the red
cadmium line. While less than a millionth
of a meter in length, this wave length is
known with an accuracy of a few parts in 10

million. This accuracy in measurement can -

be attained because nature places hundreds
of thousands of the waves end to end with
such fidelity that it is only necessary to
measure from the first to the last and count
the number of intervening waves.

I have included the diameter of a spider
web (a fiber of spider silk) as it is about the
smallest distance with which everyone is
familiar. However, spider webs vary greatly
in diameter, so that one can not assign a
definite value to the accuracy of their meas-
urement; hence a dot is placed on the unit
line of accuracy at the approximate dis-
tance.

This chart shows that, at the present
time, length measurements can be made
with the greatest accuracy for distances of
about 1 meter. This region has not ma-
terially changed for several hundred years.
Recently interference methods permit the
comparison of two end standards which are
a decimeter long with about the same ac-
curacy as can be obtained in comparing two
line standards which are a meter in length.
Thus, while the meter has not been dis-
placed as the length that can be most ac-
curately measured, it is conceivable that it
may be when electron microscopes or X-ray
interferometers are applied to the measure-
ment of length.

The extent of our concept of length,
which is obtained by dividing the largest
known length by the smallest, is 210°’.
As pointed out when extent was defined,
this is not dependent on the unit used in

CURTIS: ACCURACY OF MEASURABLE CONCEPTS

323

measuring distance. It is a ratio of two like
quantities and is therefore dimensionless.

The accuracy with which masses of vari-
ous magnitudes can be measured is shown
in Fig. 2. The coordinates have the same
relative values as the preceding chart, each
step in the vertical direction representing a
factor of 1,000 and each step in the hori-
zontal direction representing a factor of 10.
The unit ordinate is 1 kilogram.

Two kilogram standards can be compared
with an accuracy a little less than one part
in a billion. However, two tons can be com-

Battleship

Blue whale

Ton

Kilogram standard
Gran

Milligramn

~44) Human blood corpuscle

~““ antipneumoooceus

<7] Uranium atom
Proton

Electron
Extent - 4x1071

Fic. 2.—The accuracy of measurements of man.

pared only to a part in a million, while a
battleship can be weighed only to a part in
a, thousand. The blue whale has been in-
troduced, as members of this species are
probably the largest animals that ever in-
habited the earth. Since the accuracy of
weighing is not available, the weight is in-
dicated by a dot on the unit line of accuracy.
A battleship is one of the largest of the ter-
restrial objects that are ordinarily weighed.
The accuracy with which the mass of nearby
astronomical objects, such as the moon,
earth, and sun, can be determined is largely
dependent on the accuracy with which the
universal constant of gravitation can be
measured. Hence, all have been given the
same accuracy. Our galaxy is the largest

324

mass considered, being about that of a
hundred billion suns. One might include
the mass of the known universe, that is
probably a hundred billion times that of our
galaxy. However, the value is so uncertain
that the accuracy scale would have to be
extended to negative values of the expo-
nents before it could be represented.

When values less than a kilogram are
_considered, the accuracy decreases rapidly

with decreasing weight. Two living objects.

may interest the biologists. An antipneumo-
coccus germ or virus is among the smallest
of living things. It would require 10?’ of
them to weigh as much as a whale. The
human blood corpuscle is, on the multiplica-
tion scale, about midway between the ex-
tremes of living things. The weighing of the
very small objects: viz., atoms, protons, and
electrons, requires an entirely different
technique than employed for ordinary ob-
jects. The electron is the object having the
smallest mass known. Its value has been
determined with an accuracy greater than
1 per cent.

The extent of the measurement of mass
is 41071.

' Value
in Daye Interval Measured
f th
£826 on BEEP

Length of Human History
Vesuvius eruptions

Accuracy - one part in

Year
Day - Sideréal

Seconds pendulum

Standard Quartz crystal

Sodium molecule

Nucleus of Silver atom
Gamma rays of beryllium

SRE BESESS eS aise :
1O
ie ls | | ge an
c

Fic. 3.—The accuracy of measurements of time.

The accuracy with which time intervals
can be measured is shown in Fig. 3. The
unit ordinate is the day. This is universally
used as the standard of time, the second
being merely a convenient submultiple of
the day. The accuracy of measuring a single
day is about a part in 10 million. A single
year can be measured to about a part in 3
million. For the next interval I selected the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 11

=
A
Z
VW

= > LATOOT AS
Kep/m ,,01xe ausTT Jo ARTOOTAA

Fia. 4.—Comparison of the accuracy of measure-
ments of length, mass, and time.

time between the two great eruptions of
Vesuvius, the first on August 24, 79 A.D.,
and the second on December 16, 1631. If
we consider the changes in calendar that
took place, an error of a day or two in
establishing these dates is quite probable.
The length of human history is too indefi-
nite to warrant more than a dot on the line
of unit accuracy. It is now established that
the first solid crust still remaining on the
earth solidified about 2 billion years, or
8X10"! days, ago. This, then, is the age of
the earth, and it is the oldest point on our
time curve that can be definitely established.
Life has existed for about one-fourth of
that time. There is an uncertainty of at
least 10 per cent in both these times.
When times less than a day are con-
sidered, the period of the seconds pendulum

Nov. 15, 1943

and that of a standard quartz crystal can
each be determined with the same accuracy
as the day itself. The period of the sodium
molecule is.known with great accuracy, and
even that of the nucleus of the silver atom
is comparatively well known. The shortest
vibration that can be ascribed to a known
source is the gamma radiation from beryl-
lium, which is known with an accuracy of
about 10 per cent.

The extent of the measurement of time
i o< 10°.

easecte Quantity to be measured -
hours
75x

Earth in Orbit
Emitted daily by Sun
Rotation of Farth

Accuracy - One part in

Received daily by Earth

@gorrny

Ton of coal

Emitted daily by 40-watt lemp
A lerge calorie

A kilogram raised one seter

Qe Oo Dt oct

| Flash of firefly

Flectron-volt
Minimum required for vision

le oer ale la eee ai
Bush hee BnUoeesEsaess!
Setet eae alee ee
SCecseee bose
Bose Se 7 eor eee
Sic RGaw mac CES eiaeee
Se se eee ees al
HEnrshi GE ol Csembdoeea?

“1] Molecule of gas at O°C(aver-
age)

Fig. 5.—The accuracy of measurements of energy.

It is interesting to compare the accuracy
curves of the three fundamental quantities
of our system of measurements. The curves
of the three preceding charts are, therefore,
brought together in Fig. 4. An application
of these curves is the selection of a suitable
base line for measuring the velocity of light.
This velocity is about 3 X10" m/day. If the
length of the base line is from 10 to 100
meters, the time to be measured is between
6X10-" and 6X10-" days. Both this
length and this time can be measured with
an accuracy of about a part in a million. If
a longer base line is chosen the length can
not be measured with this accuracy, while
if a shorter base line is chosen the accuracy
of the time measurement will be decreased.

In each realm of science charts similar to
those here presented can be prepared. Out-
side the fundamental quantities the physical
quantity of widest interest is energy. Un-

CURTIS: ACCURACY OF MEASURABLE CONCEPTS

329

Accuracy - one part ino

Value
in volts Potential to be Measured

Lightning stroke

6
t+) % experimental vol
izes Highest Soamereial vol

321077 Concentration cell
6x10" ‘| Thermal emf/1°C(al-Pb)

Fic. 6.—The accuracy of measurements of
electrical potential.

fortunately, there is no one unit of energy
that is regularly used in all fields where
measurements of energy are made. I have
chosen to take the kilowatt-hour as the
basic unit in preparing the chart in Fig. 5.
Nearly every adult has some feeling for this
unit because it appears on all electric bills.
It may be given some semblance of reality
by noting that the electrical energy con-
verted to radiant energy in 24 hours by a
40-watt lamp is approximately a kilowatt-
hour.

The accuracy with which energy measure-
ments can be made is much less than in the
case of the basic quantities of our measure-
ment system. In no case is an accuracy
greater than a part in a hundred thousand
obtainable, and that accuracy holds for the
range from unity to 10-* kilowatt-hours.
The energy of a ton of coal can be measured
to 0.1 percent, but all astronomical energy
only to 1 percent. On the other hand, molec-
ular and electronic energy can be measured
with reasonable accuracy.

It is expected that a retiring president
shall make some mention of the field of
science to which he has given special atten-
tion. In order that I may not disappoint
you I will extend our recreations to include

Accuracy - one part in

ee Object to be Measured

One kilogran finest Sichrome
wire

Telephofie wire - N. Y. to
Prisco

Standard Ohm

Meter of trolley wire

o“} Silver dollar
4 Superconducting aetel

Fig. 7.—The accuracy of measurements of
electrical resistance.

326

some of the electrical units. The first of
these to be considered is electric potential,
which is shown in Fig. 6.

The scale is the same as previously used.
The unit ordinate is the volt, which is repre-
sented by the electromotive force of a stand-
ard cell that can be measured with an ac-
curacy of a part in ten million. The upper
limit is the potential of a lightning stroke,
and the lower limit is the thermal electro-
motive force between similar metals.

The second electrical unit to be con-
sidered is electrical resistance, represented
in Fig. 7.

The unit ordinate is the ohm, which can
be measured with an accuracy of 1 part in
10 million, the same as for electrical po-
tential. The values range from 101” ohms for
the resistance of an amber rod to about 10-8
for a silver dollar, although a wire of a
superconducting metal has a resistance less
than 10-” ohm, the limit of measurement.
An interesting feature of electrical resist-
ance is the possibility of bringing before you
objects representing nearly the extremes of
the values that are normally measured.

The chart for electrical capacitance is
shown in Fig. 8 to illustrate the small extent
of some units. The most precise measure-
ments of capacitance can be made on an air
capacitor having a capacitance of about 0.1
microfarad. This is equal to the capacitance
between two plates, each 4 meters in diame-
ter and 1 mm apart. The capacitance be-
tween the earth and the Kennelly-Heavi-
side layer is only 40,000 microfarads. The
capacitance between a ball 2 mm in diame-
ter and the walls of a large room in the
center of which the ball is placed is 10-7
microfarad.

The chart in Fig. 9 has been prepared to
show the extent of each of the quantities
which have been considered. The scale is a
multiplication scale, with each numbered
division being a factor of 101°, or 10 billion.
The enormous difference in the extent of the
different quantities is apparent.

It would be interesting to extend this
study to measurements outside the physical
field. As an example, consider the measure-
ment of intelligence. There can be little
question that the accuracy that can be
attained in determining the I.Q. of an in-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 33, NO. 11

dividual in the normal range of intelligence
is much greater than for a genius or for a
moron. Other examples will doubtless occur

to workers in the biological and sociological
fields.

7 Objects between which
ads Capacitance is measured

Earth & K-H layer

Accuracy - one part in
ne 6 8

t+)
meee

far

(=)

107! |two 4-meter plates, lam apart

\)
ZS

SAGnearnot.e KE

1077 | 2-om ball Inside an inft-

te sphere

se
BeGeos
Beene
fe aa
Pam
GSReRE LIC
Coe

Fic. 8.—The accuracy of measurements of
electrical capacitance.

The charts that have been given apply
only to measurements as they can be made
at the present time. Had a scientist of the
last generation prepared such charts, the
accuracy of measurement would, for almost
every quantity, have been appreciably less
throughout the entire range. Also, for many
of the quantities the extent would have
been much less than can now be claimed. It
is to be expected that future scientists will
improve the accuracy of measurement and
extend the range. It is intriguing to con-
template a chart with a series of curves
showing, for the beginning of each century
for which data are available, the accuracy
and extent of the measurement of such
fundamental quantities as length, mass, and
time. For those to whom this type of recrea-
tion has an appeal, there is ample room.

Length
Resistance

potential

Capacitance

Fig. 9.—The extent of measurements of seven
physical quantities.

Nov. 15, 1943

HEYL: THE GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MODERN SCIENCE

327

HISTORY OF SCIENCE.—The genealogical tree of modern science.1Pauu R.

HeEyt, National Bureau of Standards.

Science may be defined as an ordered and
correlated body of knowledge, as distin-
guished from a group of uncoordinated
facts. Any branch of knowledge which has
reached this ordered stage of development
may be called a science, though in common
usage this term is often understood as re-
ferring to what are called the natural
sciences—astronomy, physics, chemistry,
geology, and biology. There are, however,
other branches of knowledge equally en-
titled to rank as sciences under this defini-
tion, such as mathematics, logic, linguistics,
economics, ethics, and that which its de-
votees like to call ‘‘the science of sciences’ —
philosophy. In fact, in the Middle Ages
theology was called ‘‘the Queen of the Sci-
ences.’ Viewed from this aspect, the term
“science”? may be regarded as covering al-
most the whole range of human thinking;
and as it is obviously impossible to cover
such an extent of territory in a limited time,
we shall confine ourselves to a more re-
stricted field. :

The first thing necessary is to get a good
perspective of the subject, to see where and
when the earliest scientific records are to
be found, how scientific centers arose in
other places, while the activity of the earlier
ones faded away, and to which of these
early centers modern science is most in-
debted for its heritage.

The oldest civilizations are those of
China, India, Egypt, and Babylonia. It
is not always possible to assign definite
dates to the earliest events mentioned in
the ancient records of these countries, as
these records sometimes disagree among
themselves by hundreds of years. All that
modern historical scholarship feels safe in
saying is that recorded history in China and
India dates from somewhere in the third

millennium B.C., and in Egypt and Baby-

lonia perhaps a thousand years earlier.
In all these countries (except India) the
earliest scientific records are in the field of

1 Address delivered at the 1216th meeting of the

Philosophical Society of Washington, March 27,
1943. Received May 15, 1943.

astronomy. This is but natural, as a prac-
tical acquaintance with the rudiments of
astronomy is indispensable to primitive
people. The sun is their clock; the moon
affords a measure of periods of time too
long to be counted conveniently in days;
and eclipses of the sun and moon must have
inspired terror from earliest times.

The astronomy of these early days con-
tained a large element of astrology; never-
theless, a considerable amount of astronom-
ical knowledge was accumulated. In con-
nection with this a parallel development of
mathematics was unavoidable. The be-
ginnings of the other sciences came later.

China, for geographical reasons, was long
isolated from the western world. Even the
silk trade did not become important until
near the beginning of the Christian Era,
and this involved no cultural relations be-
tween China and Europe. The silk was sent
from depot to depot, serving the Indian and
Persian empires, and changed hands many
times along the route. The first Europeans
to reach Peking were the Polos, in the latter
part of the thirteenth century. Marco Polo
records in the account of his travels only
one item that may be regarded as of a sci-
entific nature. He says in one place:

“It is a fact that all over the country of
Cathay there is a kind of black stones exist-
ing in beds in the mountains which they dig
out and burn like firewood. If you supply
the fire with them at night, and see that
they are well kindled, you will find them
still alight in the morning; and they make
such capital fuel that no other is used
throughout the country. It is true that they
have plenty of wood also, but they do not
burn it, because these stones burn better
and cost less.”

But Marco Polo’s account of the manners
and customs of the Chinese was not taken
seriously by his contemporaries. He was
popularly known as ‘‘Marco Millions,” and
his book was regarded as a collection of
travelers’ tales. It was centuries before his
account of his travels received the attention
it deserved.

328

The Chinese annals contain lists of com-
ets dating back ostensibly to about 2300
B.C. The early parts of this record are
rather confused, but modern astronomers
have checked the later parts and found
them intelligible and trustworthy as far
back as 611 B.C. The Chinese seem to have
been early acquainted with the length of the
solar year, as the first Jesuit missionaries,
who arrived in China in the seventeenth
century, found that it was an immemorial
custom among the Chinese to divide a
circle into 365;°. The Chinese seem also, at
an early period, to have used astronomical
instruments with graduated circles by which
measurements of right ascension and dec-
lindtion could be made. Some of these in-
struments, constructed about 1280 A.D.,
were still to be seen at Peking in 1881. They
show that the Chinese anticipated by at
least three centuries some of Tycho Brahe’s
most important inventions, and one of their
sages is credited with having measured with
considerable accuracy the obliquity of the
ecliptic.

The inventions of gunpowder, of print-
ing, and of the magnetic compass are also
ascribed to the Chinese. The art of printing
from movable blocks was undoubtedly
known in China in the early centuries of
the Christian Era. It is possible that the
claim of antiquity for the invention of gun-
powder is also well founded, as explosives
were a natural development from the in-
cendiaries used in warfare by all the nations
of antiquity. There is some doubt, however,
as to the antiquity of the Chinese knowl-
edge of the compass, as their first documen-
tary record of this device is not earlier than
the sixteenth century.

But even granting the early invention of
all these things, the western world received
none of them from China. The beginning of
cultural intercourse between Europe and
the Far East dates from the arrival of Jesuit
missionaries in China in the seventeenth
century, and by that time western science
had developed to such a degree that China
had nothing of value to offer.

The ancient records of India are silent on
scientific matters, but it is reasonable to
assume that astronomy (or astrology) was

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 11

not nonexistent there in early times. Indi-
rect evidence of this is found in the growth
of Hindu mathematics. About 600 A.D.
Hindu algebra and geometry had reached a
remarkable stage of development, and to
some unknown Hindu sage the western
world is indebted for two inventions of the
first rank in practical importance—the sym-
bol for zero and the principle of position in
numeration. These devices were taken up
by the Arabs and later transmitted by them
to Europe, whence we speak of the “‘Arabic”’
numerals.

In ancient Egypt astronomy was to a
certain extent the handmaid of religion. The
stars were observed that they might be duly
worshiped. These observations, however,
were not without their usual practical as-
pect. For example, the heliacal rising, or

‘first appearance at dawn of the bright star

Sirius, heralded the beginning of the rise of
the Nile, so important in Egyptian agricul-
ture.

The ancient Egyptian mind excelled in
practical engineering rather than in theo-
retical science. In geometry, the Egyptians
laid emphasis on making constructions and
determining areas. This was probably a
consequence of the necessity of determining
boundaries anew after the recession of the
annual Nile flood. The Greeks (perhaps
rather contemptuously) called the Egyp-
tian geometers ‘“rope-stretchers,”’ rather
than philosophers, and there is some evi-
dence that this opinion was not unjustified.

There is in the British Museum an Egyp-
tian papyrus, written by one Ahmes some
time before 1700 B.C. It is entitled “‘Direc-
tions for Obtaining the Knowledge of All
Dark Things.” It shows that the Egyptians
of that day cared but little for mathemati-
cal theory. It contains practical rules for de-
termining areas, with no theoretical proof.
These rules give more or less inaccurate re-
sults. For instance, the area of an isosceles
triangle whose sides measure 10 ruths and
the base 4 ruths is given as 20 square ruths,
or half the product of the base by one side.
Occasionally, however, the results are rather
close. The area of a circle is found by sub-
tracting from the diameter one-ninth of its
length and squaring the remainder. This is

Nov. 15, 1943

equivalent to a value of z equaling 3.1604, a
very fair approximation.

There is evidence, however, that the an-
cient Egyptians carried out their engineer-
ing work with a high degree of perfection
and no little ingenuity. The precise orienta-
tion of the Pyramids shows the care with
which they observed the heavenly bodies,
and in heavy construction they accom-
plished work which has called forth the ad-
miration of modern engineers.

The quarrying, transporting, and erecting
of the many obelisks still standing in Egypt
illustrate this engineering skill. It is some-
times said, rather superficially, that the
Kgyptians had unlimited man power; but a
little reflection will show that something
more than this was required.

HEYL: THE GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MODERN SCIENCE

329

and written records of later periods give us
some hints of the methods used.

The Egyptians knew the use of rollers, of
the inclined plane, and of the lever. Single
pulleys for changing the direction of a rope
were used, but pulley blocks and screw
jacks were not known. What modern engi-
neer would undertake to move and erect one
of these great stones without the aid of these
two important mechanical powers?

Two kinds of stone were used by the
Egyptians—granite and limestone. The obe-
lisks were cut from quarries in upper Egypt,
over 300 miles from the Mediterranean
coast, and transported by water down the
Nile to the place where they were to be
erected. In one of these quarries there was
found a broken saw in a cut in the rock.

Fig. 1.—Egyptian method of loading an obelisk.

An obelisk 150 feet high, with an average
cross section of 100 square feet, will weigh
about 1,000 tons. Allowing 2 feet per man,
not more than 150 men could stand around
one of these great stones as it lay on the
ground; and the lifting of such a stone by
unaided man power would require each man
to lift about 7 tons.

Our knowledge of how the Egyptians ac-
complished their feats of engineering comes
from three sources. The rainless climate of
Egypt has preserved for us in their original
perfection numerous drawings on the walls
of ancient temples and tombs, depicting the
daily life of the common people. Remnants
of unfinished work are found here and there;

This saw was a large two-man saw, of copper
or bronze. It had no teeth, but fragments
of emery were found lying about it. Mines
of emery have been known from remote
antiquity in the islands of the eastern
Mediterranean. It is obvious that the
cutting of the stone was accomplished by
feeding the saw with emery and water. It
is not an uncommon practice today to cut
stone by use of belts of wire rope, driven
by a steam engine and fed with sand and
water.

The loading of the stone on a boat was a
problem requiring considerable ingenuity. A
stone weighing 1,000 tons, if it got away
from those handling it and fell only 6 inches,

330

would break the bottom out of any boat.
Pliny, in his Natural history, tells how this
loading was done.

Pliny visited Egypt a thousand years
after the obelisk period, but he apparently
found a living tradition that he preserved
for us; and when I tell you what it was, you
will remember it for a thousand years, if
you live that long.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 11

The lower surface of the stone was probably
not more than a foot or so above the water
level. Two large flat boats were then loaded
down with stone, pushed under the obelisk
—and the stone unloaded! ;

The obelisk was then floated down the
river to the desired locality, and the loading
process reversed. Near one of the obelisks at
Luxor there is still to be seen the trace of

Fig. 2.—Egyptian method of erecting an obelisk.

The method employed is illustrated in
Fig. 1. The obelisk was brought down to the
river bank and laid parallel to the river.
Two canals were dug under it, so that it was
supported at the middle and at the ends.

the canal by which it was floated in from
the river at the time it was erected.

The erection of an obelisk was a task that
required still more ingenuity than loading
it on a boat. A thousand tons of stone in an

Nov. 15, 1943

elongated form is not only heavy, but brit-
tle. Unless carefully supported there is
danger of its breaking by its own weight.
Fig. 2 shows how the erection of an obelisk
was carried out.

The first thing was to prepare the stone
base. Around this were built up walls of
Nile mud, which were tamped down and
allowed to dry thoroughly. One of these
walls was extended into a long inclined
plane. The empty space between the walls
was then filled with dry sand from the des-
ert.

The obelisk, supported on a long wooden
frame, was then pushed up the incline on
rollers, bottom first. On reaching the top its
bottom end tilted downward and rested on
the sand. An opening was then made at the
bottom of the walland the sand removed, a
bucketful at a time. The sand ran down as
in a gigantic hourglass, and the obelisk
finally came to rest on its base in an upright
position.

In chemistry, the Egyptians were proba-
bly no farther advanced than other peoples
of antiquity. The arts of tanning and dyeing
and the production of brass and bronze were
widely practiced in ancient times. But by an
accident of history the Egyptians contrib-
uted something to the science of chemistry
that no other nation had an opportunity to
do—they gave it its name.

The fertile land of Egypt is a streak of
black Nile mud, 5 to 15 miles wide, across
the yellow sand of the desert. In the ancient
Egyptian tongue the country was called
“Khem,” or ‘“Khmi,” meaning “black
earth.” When the Mohammedan Arabs
came into Egypt in the seventh century
A.D., they were interested in the simple
chemical arts they found there. They com-
bined an Arabic prefix with the native
name of the land, and coined the word
“‘al-Khemi,” meaning “the Egyptian art.’
Not until the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury did this word lose its Arabic prefix,
and the alchemist become a chemist.

In the early records of Babylonia we find
much of importance in the field of astron-
omy, especially well preserved for us on
clay tablets. The principal constellations, as
we know them, including the signs of the

HEYL: THE GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MODERN SCIENCE

331

zodiac, originated in Babylonia. The period
called the Saros, of 18 years and 11 days, in
which eclipses of the sun and moon repeat
themselves very nearly, was discovered in
Chaldea at an unknown epoch. By means of
this cycle the Babylonian sages were able to
predict eclipses. The first ‘Nautical Alma-
nac”’ was published annually on clay tab-
lets, now in the British Museum. These
tablets contain times of new moon, of
heliacal risings and settings, of conjunctions
and oppositions of the planets, and predic-
tions of eclipses. One of these old tablets
contains an interesting astronomical report:

“To the king, my lord, thy faithful servant,
Mar-Istar:

“On the first day, as the new moon’s day of
the month Thammuz declined, the moon was
again visible over the planet Mercury, as I had
already predicted to my master, the king. I
erred not.”

It is from the Babylonians that we have
derived our division of the circle into 360°,
as they had a calendar of 12 lunar months,
which is still preserved by their modern
kinsmen, the Mohammedan Arabs.

It was from the Babylonians that the
Greeks obtained their first scientific stimu-
lus. The genius of the Greek mind lay not so
much in invention as in development and
perfection. The great Greek teacher Plato
(429-348 B.C.) recognized this when he
said: ‘‘Whatever we Greeks receive, we im-
prove and perfect.’”’ This was well illus-
trated in the genesis of Greek science.

Greek science did not originate in the
mainland of Greece but in the Greek colo-
nies in the Ionian islands in the eastern
Mediterranean. It was 200 years before this
movement reached the mother country.

About 650 B.C. certain Babylonian sages
found their way to the shore of the Mediter-
ranean, where they came in contact with
Greek colonists. A school was founded on
the island of Cos, which soon became a new
center of learning. Among the Ionian phi-
losophers we find the names of many famous
scientific pioneers, not only in astronomy
and mathematics but also in physics and
medicine.

Thales of Miletus was one of the earliest

332

philosophers of this school. His name is
traditionally associated with the prediction
of a solar eclipse and with the electrical
properties of amber. Pythagoras of Samos
was a pupil of Thales, and his name sug-
gests a well-known geometrical theorem. He
later migrated to the Greek colonies in
Magna Grecia (Sicily and southern Italy),
where a new scientific center grew up that
later furnished teachers to the mother coun-
try.

In the Ionian island of Samothrace, at
some time prior to 400 B.C., there was dis-
covered the magnetic toy known as the
Samothracian rings. Aristarchus of Samos,
about 250 B.C., was the first to suggest a
heliocentric theory of the solar system. Hip-
pocrates of Cos, about 450 B.C., is still
known as the ‘‘Father of Modern Medi-
cine,”’ and framed copies of the Hippocratic
oath, which was administered to all candi-
dates for the profession in his day, are now
to be seen hanging in physicians’ offices.

Certain of these Ionians are known to
have visited Egypt, and undoubtedly they
profited to some extent by what they
learned there, but the greater part of the
credit for Te origin of Greek science is
undoubtedly due to Babylonia.

The rise of Athens and the ensuing

Golden Age of Greece (480-338 B.C.)
brought in another new center of learn-
ing. Here we have the names of Plato and
his pupil Aristotle.

With the fall of Athens and the rise of
Alexander the Great, a new center of sci-
entific learning grew up at Alexandria. This
city was founded by Alexander in 332 B.C.,
and its first ruler, Ptolemy Soter (not to be
confused with the astronomer Ptolemy),
offered opportunities to Greek scholars to
continue their studies under his auspices.
He built for their accommodation the mu-
seum where, maintained by royal bounty,
they resided, studied, and taught. He laid
the foundations of the great Alexandrian
library and originated the search for copies
of all written works, which resulted in the
formation of a collection such as the world
has seldom seen. The successors of Ptolemy
Soter carried on his original plan vigorously,
and one of them, Euergetes (247-222 B.C.),
compelled all travelers who arrived in Alex-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 11

andria to leave a copy of any literary work
that they possessed.

The Alexandrian school, though located
on Egyptian soil, was essentially Greek in its
personnel and habits of thought. About
80 B.C. Egypt came under Roman domina-
tion. After this time the character of the
school gradually suffered a change. The
earlier scholars had devoted themselves to
science and literature, while in later times
their main interest was in what we would
now called philosophy. Yet while it lasted
(until the fifth century A.D.) the school of
Alexandria included some great names:
Kuclid (about 300 B.C.); Apollonius of
Perga (200 B.C.), the author of a treatise
on conic sections; Eratosthenes (230 B.C.),
who made the first measurement of the cir-
cumference of the earth; and Hipparchus
(160-125 B.C.), who found the epicyelical
theory of the heavens, later known as the
Ptolemaic system, from its most famous ex-
positor, Claudius Ptolemaeus.

The culture of Rome was largely bor-
rowed from the Greeks. The Romans ex-
celled in their own right in law and adminis-
tration and developed considerable ability
in the building of roads and aqueducts, but
manual labor of any kind was held to be de-
grading. Seneca (3 B.C.-65 A.D.) said:

In my own time there have been inventions
of this sort, transparent windows, tubes for
diffusing warmth equally through all parts of a
building, short-hand which has been carried to
such a perfection that a writer can keep pace
with the most rapid speaker. But the inventing
of such things is drudgery for the lowest slaves;
philosophy lies deeper. It is not her office to
teach men how to use their hands. The object
of her lessons is to form the soul. In them there
is nothing of instruments for the necessary use
of artisans.

With such a stigma resting upon it, no
great development of science could ee
been expected under Roman auspices. The
fall of Rome (476 A.D.) made matters
worse, for the barbarians who overwhelmed
Rome had no traditions of culture; and in
addition to this indifference to science there
developed in Europe a positive hostility to
it in an unexpected quarter.

Nov. 15, 1943

In the early centuries of the Christian
Era there existed a widespread belief that
the Last Judgment was close at hand and
might be expected to occur within any one’s
lifetime. In consequence, time was precious
and should be devoted to saving souls rather
than to the study of natural phenomena
that were so soon to pass away. Eusebius,
bishop of Caesarea in Palestine (260-340
A.D.), speaking of scientific investigators,
said: “It is not through ignorance of the
things admired by them, but through con-
tempt of their useless labor that we think
little of these matters, turning our souls to
better things.’”’ His successor, Basil, de-
clared: “It is a matter of no interest to us
whether the earth is a sphere or a cylinder
or a disk, or concave in the center like a
fan.”

As the years passed and the last day did
not occur, the prophets revised their calcu-
lations and finally announced that the great
event would happen in the year 1000. This
prediction received wide belief and was a
factor in prolonging for centuries in Europe
the idea that the study of nature was a
waste of time. When the year 1000 finally
arrived this belief was as strong as ever.
Many European peasants thought it useless
to till their fields, and in consequence much
suffering occurred.

This feeling that scientific study was a
waste of precious time undoubtedly had
much to do with the almost total eclipse of
science in Europe during the Middle Ages.
However, during this period scientific
knowledge was kept alive in the East by
the Arabs. —

Arabia, at: the time when Mohammed
came upon the scene (about 613 A.D.), was
in a state of political chaos. Part of it was
under Persian influence; the rest of the pop-
ulation either lived in towns, each of which
had its own government, or else belonged to
various wandering tribes maintaining the
traditions of family and tribal rule and
fighting continual battles with one another.
Mohammed’s success in welding together
this apparently unpromising material into
‘a united and conquering nation is one of the
wonders of history. At his death in 632 he
left Arabia practically unified. His succes-

HEYL: THE GENEALOGICAL TREE OF MODERN SCIENCE

333

sors conquered the whole of northern Africa
and crossed the strait of Gibraltar into
Spain, where they remained an important
element of the population until the time of
Columbus. The post-Mohammedan Arabs
encouraged learning, exalted the supremacy
of reasoning, founded schools from Bagdad
to Granada, and did everything possible to
apply scientific knowledge to the purposes
of every day life, so much so that the
Crusaders were astonished at the magnifi-
cence and splendor of the civilization with
which they were confronted. Arabic scholars
made translations from the Greek writers
and added contributions of their own. The
extent of the scientific knowledge of the
Arabs is illustrated by the following words,
all of Arabic origin, which still preserve
their original signification—nadir, zenith,
alchemy, alkali, algebra, cipher, carat, elixir.
The esteem in which the Arabs held scien-
tific study at a time when Europe regarded
it as worthless is illustrated by a burst of
enthusiasm from one of their own writers
(850 A.D.), who said: “‘In the Last Day,
may Allah have mercy on the soul of Al-
Razi, for he was the first of mankind to
draw up a table of specific gravities.”’

It is impossible to regard this change in
the group psychology of the Arabs in post-
Mohammedan times without feeling that
there must have been something dormant in
their heredity that responded in its own way
to the general stimulus given by Moham-
med. It is unthinkable that Mohammed
could have brought about the same result
with any of the tribes of central Africa. In
this connection we think at once of the in-
tellectual achievements of that other an-
cient branch of the Semitic race—the
Babylonians. Scientific learning seems to.
have been indigenous to the soil of ancient
Arabia.

It is true that there is another side to this
story. Besides those Arabs who kept the
lamp of learning burning, there were others,
religious fanatics, such as the Caliph Omar,
who ordered the destruction of the rem-
nants of the great Alexandrian library on
the ground that if the books agreed with the
Koran they were useless, and if they did not
they were pernicious, and should be de-

334

stroyed. Fortunately, Arabs of his type
seem to have been an insignificant minority.

To return to Europe, after the critical
year 1000 had passed the people seem to
have gradually lost faith in the prophets of
doom, and interest in scientific investigation
began to reappear here and there. In the lat-
ter part of the twelfth century the magnetic
compass came into use, and in the thir-
teenth century we have Roger Bacon, a
scientific pioneer.

The revival of interest in science in
Europe was a part of the general renewal of
interest in learning. The Renaissance period
was not, as it is sometimes represented, a
sudden break with medievalism and a birth
of the modern world. It extended over a
period of a century or more. A number of
conditions favorable to the rapid develop-
ment of learning happened to coincide, and
as a result man’s outlook on himself and
nature in general became profoundly modi-
fied.

One of these conditions resulted from the
capture of Constantinople by the Turks in
1453. With the fall of the Byzantine Empire
many learned Greeks fled into Italy, bringing
with them manuscripts of Greek literature
and (what was more important) the ability

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VOL. 33, No. 11

to read them. A revival of interest in the
culture of the ancients ensued, especially in
Italy, which became the chief center of the
Renaissance.

The invention of printing at about this
time made it possible to obtain many copies
of books at a comparatively trifling cost,
and the voyages of Columbus produced new
ideas and prepared men’s minds to accept
the more human and naturalistic view of
the universe which had been current among
the Greeks, in place of the mystical aspect
which it wore to the medieval schoolmen
and ecclesiastics.

It will be seen from this brief sketch of
the genealogical tree of European science

. that its roots are to be found in the ancient

civilizations of Babylonia, Egypt, and India,
in the order of importance as named. It is
probably safe to say that Babylonia con-
tributed more than Egypt and India to-
gether. The contributions of these ancient
civilizations converged, partly for geograph-
ical reasons, on Greece, where they fell on
fertile soil. From the Greeks this heritage
of knowledge passed to the Romans, and
later, on the decline of Greece and Rome, it
passed to the Arabs, who were its custodians
until the revival of learning in Europe.

ETHNOLOGY.—Hokan discovered in South America.: JoHN P. HARRINGTON.
(Communicated by WiuuiamM N. FENTON.) :

The purpose of this paper is to show the
Hokan affinity of Quechua, “lengua gen-
eral,”’ that is, general language, of the Inca
Empire, formerly, and still at the present
day, spoken in large parts of what are now
the countries of Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia,
in South America, and much heard at the
present moment even on the streets of
Cuzco, Quito, and Potosf. Hitherto the af-
finity of Hokan has been carried only to the
Subtiaba language of the Pacific watershed
of Central America.? The present discovery
carries Hokan a step farther, and for the
first time unites the two continents of
North and South America linguistically. I

1 Received August 28, 1943.

2 Sapir, E., The Hokan affinity of Subtiaba in
Nicaragua. Amer. Anthrop. 27: 402-435, 491-
527. 1925.

wish to express deep indebtedness and
gratitude to Dr. Luis E. Valecarcel and to
Prof. J. M. B. Farfan, the latter having
gone farther than any other person in a bold
analysis of Quechua linguistic forms.
Following Sapir’s discernment that simi-
larity of meaning should have precedence
over similarity of sound as a guide in the as-
sembling of forms for comparison, Farfan
and the present writer, with entirely differ-
ent backgrounds, have analyzed Quechua
forms, with the result of becoming entirely
convinced that these are made up of ag-
glutinated elements, stereotyped and worn
into a peculiarly nonperspicuous condition.
Bases and their endings, and even bibases in
origin, have become phonetically improved
and evaluated for statement and for label-
ing of entity. But in origin Quechua forms

Nov. 15, 1943

were conglomerations, like those of other
Hokan languages, consisting of bases and
affixes amalgamated together, and are still
thus composed, and could be advantage-
ously pried apart, if we only had some good
means of doing so with certainty. Quechua
doubtless contains bases of first and of sec-
ond position and many affixes. The Quechua
language has changed through countless
generations since the time when it was more
nearly related to Hokan, many of those
which were perhaps in early times principal
forms having gone out of use. Yet the main
Hokan traits of affinity still remain, in
sounds, in structure, in vocabulary. The as-
sumption of the present status has been
attended with ablautings of vowels and with
changings of consonants. Component sounds
in various settings have developed differ-
ently; yet in spite of this phonetic shifts
can be worked out, some of them not too
good, and being not too good they are the
more convincing for showing genetic affin-
ity. Hokanity pervades the entire make-up
of Quechua.

Wesimply do not possess a good approach
to the analysis of Quechua. The dialects of
Quechua are not sufficiently differentiated
for furnishing such an approach. And there
is no extraneous language closely enough
related to Quechua to render synchronic
findings in it well worth while. Early record-
ings in Quechua itself throw light on only a
few forms.

The name of the Quechua language.—The
native name of the Quechua language in
Quechua itself is runasimi, which means
literally a person’s mouth, but the second
member is extended by metaphor to signify
language, so that the whole means native’s
language, coinciding exactly with the cur-
rent Spanish term: lengua general. The lan-
guage is called Quechua in Spanish, but not
so in Quechua speech itself. The geographi-
cal term qheswa, mountain valley, was also
used as a place name and from this usage
became applied to an inhabitant or collec-
tivity of inhabitants of a place. The term
qheswa was in use meaning inhabitant of
the province of Cuzco, and from this use it
was only a step to the taking of the term
into Spanish in the form Quechua and as the
name of the language in its entirety.

HARRINGTON: HOKAN DISCOVERED'IN SOUTH AMERICA

339

Loan words of Quechua origin in Spanish.
—No better appreciation of the prominent
position of the Quechua language with re-
gard to influence on Spanish can be gained
than from an examination of some of the
words common in Spanish which have come
into it from Quechua. A large bilingual
population has for generations helped along
this borrowing. Well-known Spanish words
which have found their way into Spanish
from Quechua are: Andes (from anti,
mountain-region); campa, Campa (from
kampa, coward); chaco, Chaco (from
teaku, hunt); chacra (from tcaxra, culti-
vated field); charqui (from tcarki, jerky);
condor (from kuntur, condor); Cuzco (from
Qotcqo, name of the Inca capital); guaca-
mayo (from wakamayu, macaw); guano
(from wanu, manure); pampa (from pampa,
plain); papa (from papa, potato); pita
(from pita, string); puma (from puma,
mountain lion); puna (from puna, elevated
plain); quina (said to be from kina, Peru-
vian bark); quipo (from ghipu, knot).

The three approaches to the analysis of
Quechua.—(1) The main approach will al-
ways have to be internal analysis within the
Quechua language itself, by comparison of
forms with related ones and with forms not
related. It was by internal analysis and with
a guiding background knowledge of some of
the Hokan languages of North America that
realization of the Hokan nature of Quechua
first dawned upon me. Starting with wi-qe,
tear, which reminded me vividly of Pomo
yu-xa, tear, lit. eye-water, I.e., eye’s mois-
ture, I obtained old Quechua elements for
eye and for water: wi-, eye; -qe, water. It
was easy to see that Quechua nyawi, eye,
also occurring in nyawpa, in front of, must
have replaced an older and once dominant
wi-, eye. Three forms are to be found of the
old word for water: -qe, as in wi-ge, tear;
qo-, for instance in qo-tca, lake; and qa,
seasonal stream. Sun-kha, beard, was
sensed to be literally mouth-hair, the first
syllable a form of simi, mouth, the second
syllable evidently to be identified with qa-,
skin, pelt. To adduce the very rare great
similarity between Quechua and a Hokan
language far north, I formed wa-si-lya-y,
my little house, and compared it with
Chimariko a-wa-lla-’i, my little house.

336

Comparison within Quechua itself some-
times shows what is the meaningful part of
a word. For instance, it becomes apparent
that haly- signifies earth, upon comparison
of (h)aly-p(’)a, earth; haly-pi, to dig;
haly-ma, to dirty. Sometimes one is at a
loss to know which forms to select for com-
parison. Thus pa-na, sister, and pa-ya, old
woman, may belong together.

2. It is rare indeed that early spellings
of Quechua are helpfully divirgent from the
present-day ones. Examples of useful early
spellings are rinkri, ear, now oridinarily
rinri; -kta, objective, not standardly -ta.

3. Sometimes a dialect of Quechua, diver-
gent in its retention of a form, offers mate-
rial for comparison which the standard
language does not offer. Thus phy-yu,
cloud, is shown by the Cajamarca dialect
of Quechua pu-kuta, cloud, to have its
first syllable carry the meaning of cloud.
Notably the Chinchay dialect of Quechua,
a vocabulary of which first was published
in the second edition of Torres Rubio’s
Arte de la langua Quechua, Lima, 1700, is
removed from the standard Quechua as
regards forms and vocabulary.

Comparison of Quechua with the Hokan
languages is more restricted by lack of sure
analysis in Quechua than by any other fac-
tor.

Metaphorical extension of definition.—
When for instance nyaw-sa, blind, lit. not
having eyes, is found to have had its mean-
ing extended by metaphor to sightless, we
contemplate what has been called a meta-
phorical extension of meaning. Metaphori-
cal means, literally, carrying beyond.

Ranking of elements negligible as regards
comparison.—lIt is found again and again
upon comparing extraneous Hokan forms
with Quechua that the compared elements
override the weight which they have as-
sumed in a given language, with the result
that a theme or base has sometimes to be
compared with an affix, or vice versa.

Abbreviations.—The name of the lan-
guage from which taken is placed before a
compared form. If the name of the language
is short, or if the name occurs rarely, it is
written out in full. And in general descrip-
tion, language names are not abbreviated.
For instance, Yana, the name of a Hokan

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 11

language of California, is so short that it
would be unnecessary to abbreviate it. The
few language names which it is advanta-
geous to shorten as labels of provenience pre-
ceding cited forms are:

Chime 424, a ees Chimariko
Choet? ge Rae Choctaw
ne) aaa Bt Aeon f Quechua
Salley. At cae tune Salinan
Sulla gers aycoe hy Wo eater Subtiaba
PHONETICS

In bird’s-eye view, the Hokan languages
show a. contrastive distinguishing of six
vowels, for the most part, which vowels can
be written by the familiar symbols: aouei
39. Some of the Hokan languages further-
more distinguish short and long vowels, but
Quechua does not.

In far perspective as regards consonants,
what may be called the principal character-
istic of the Hokan languages is that while
many of them, as for instance Yana, have
only one articulatory series produced by the
back of the tongue and again only one pro-
duced by the front of the tongue, Quechua,
for instance, has two back-of-the-tongue
series, which could be spoken of as the q
and the k series, and Salinan is noted for
possessing two front-of-the-tongue series,
which could be spoken of as the t and the
t series. No Hokan language has been found
which has both the two rear and the two |
front series.

It is a general feature of the phonetics of
the Hokan languages to have developed, in
addition to unaspirated clusives, which
would naturally be written with the un-
aspirated values of Spanish t and p for in-
stance, also a clicked variety of clusives,
and again a strongly aspirated variety of
clusives, thereby greatly increasing the
number of distinctive consonant sounds.

The Hokan system of consonants, with-
out listing in separate lines the doubling of
rear or of front series, yet taking into cog-
nizance the widespread triple appearance
of clusives as unaspirated, clicked and
aspirated, would be somewhat as follows:

? ah

k ko kh x

t+ t? th c te te’ tech s ts ts’ tsh ron
pp ph wm

Nov. 15, 1943

Comparison of sounds.— Widespread stud-
ies have shown that consonant sounds when
syllabo-initial and again when syllabofinal
diverge in development, and that languages
long apart, as for instance Quechua and
Yana, have been preceded by scores of gen-
erations of linguistic change of which there
is no record, of which change we do well to
puzzle out the results without ever being
able to learn the details of development.
Both vowel and consonant appearances in
Quechua are shockingly diverse. Rit’i,
snow, appears in the Ancachs dialect of
Quechua as raku, snow. Even articulatory
series of consonants are not adhered to in
development. Thus urgo, mountain; hirka,
mountain top. Appearance of a word with
two of the three forms of clusive can be il-
lustrated by: goso, husband; ghari, man in
prime; Cajamarca Q tayka, heel; Q t’ayku,
heel.

VOWELS:

a, 0, U—a

Q qaqa, rock; Pomo kabe, stone; Sal (t)cxa’,
stone; Q -qo, water; Yana xana, water; Pomo
-xa, water; Q phuyu, cloud; Sal pa’’i’’, cloud.

u, a—o

Q pu-, to sleep; Chim po-, to sleep; Subt
-apo, to sleep; Q mukiy, to be suffocated; Sal
(i)mo’kLop, to be drowned (pl.); Q muqgqo,
knee; Pomo moko, knee; Q matcay, cave;
Pomo mo, cave. It should be noticed in this
connection that Spanish o regularly appears as
u in Spanish loan words into Quechua. Thus
Spanish cotén, shirt; Q kutun, shirt.

u, W—uU
Q phu-, to blow; Pomo pu-, to blow; Q wi-,
eye; Q uy-a, face; Pomo ui, eye.

a, i—e

Q amu, mute; Yana ‘ému, to stop crying;
Chinchay Q tcatca, old woman; Sal tc‘ene”’,
old woman; Q waman, falcon; Chim wemer,
eagle; Q silyu, unguis; Sal icele”’, unguis.

1, U—2

Q silya, gravel; Subt sivnu, stone; Q nyiy,
niy, to say; Pomo ni, to say; Q tuta, night;
Chim diwe-, night.

HARRINGTON: HOKAN DISCOVERED IN SOUTH AMERICA

337

CONSONANTS:

4 q; C=

Q iwa, plant, tree; Subt i‘ci, tree; Q galyu,
for *alyu, tongue; Chim -pen, tongue; Q
yawar, blood; Sal a:’kat, blood.

h—h

h is non-occurrent in any of the Hokan lan-
guages except in interjection or song padder,
or as a secondary development.

q; gh, k, w—4Y, k

Q khipuy, to tie; Pomo qo, to tie; Q gowl,
cuy; Sal kol’, hare; Q orgqo, male; Q qosa,
husband; Q ghari, man in prime; Pomo kawi,
boy; Q kun-ka, neck, throat, voice; Chim -ki,
neck; Q yawar, blood; Sal a:’kat, blood.

k—k’ ;
Q kuru, worm; Sal ck’ot, snake, worm, grub.

q’; gh—x
Q saq’aqa, bone of dead; Sal axa’k, bone;
Q qho-, nose; Chim -xu, nose.

ie t——b,.0) 1

Q tayta, father; Sal tele”, father; Q inti,
sun; Pomo da, sun; Sal na, sun. Within Quechua
itself one finds Q pirutu, piruru, bone-flute;
Q tchataku, ragamuffin, tchanaku, rag.

Ue, UE

Q tulyu, bone; Chim -txun, bone; Q tawna,
walking-stick; Sal itxau, cane; Q tca(n)ka, leg;
Chim -txan, leg.

ic’—tc
Q te’ini, small; Chim tcitc, child.

(Glee,
Q tcuta, to drag; Chim-texa-, to pull.

s,T—s

Q sonqo, heart; Chim -santce, heart; Q simi,
mouth; Pomo si-, with the mouth; Q rin(k)ri,
for *sinkri, ear; Shasta isak, ear; Q yawar,
blood; Chantal awas, blood.

tc—ts |
Q tciwtci, fledgeling; Pomo tsita, bird.

ly, yl n
_Q qalyu, tongue; Chim -pen, tongue; Sal
epa’’l, tongue; Q ilyay, to shine; Yana -’lai-,
to warm; Sal lo-L, to get burnt; Q muyu,
circle; Chim nolle, round; Q nyoqa, nogqa, I;
Chim nout, I.

338

Y—Y

Q ay-a, corpse; Yana ya, person; Q yu-, to
think; Pomo -yi-, referring to thinking.

P—P, b

Q ispiwi, lamp; Chim pi’a, n, fat; Q para,
rain; Yana ba-ri-, to rain; Q pupu, navel; Chim
-napu, navel.

w—w

Q wira, n, fat; Pomo wi-m, n, fat; Q wanu,
manure; Chim -wax, excrement; Sal p‘xat’,
excrement, intestines; Q wixsa, belly; Pomo
woxa, belly.

p—m, b

Q patca, the earth; Pomo ma, earth; Chin-
chay Q paqa, head, chief; Chim me-, with the
head; Pomo ba-, with the head.

Accent.—Each Hokan language has its
own accentuation. In Quechua the accent
has settled on the penult, but is kept dis-
tinctive on the ultima in words in -tca, du-
bitative. The Chinchay dialect of Quechua
has inherited more of the ultima accentua-
tion than has the standard Quechua.

MorPHOLOGY

Morphology, as the term is applied to
language, is the study of denotatory form,
Greek morphée being the equivalent of
Latin forma, both signifying form. Morphol-
ogy amounts in actuality to the analysis
of words, the word consisting of a denota-
tory theme, or of extended theme known as
base, or of a pair of these, without or with
affix or affixes. A general term for the de-
notatory element of language is morphom.
Identity of usages and parallelism of the
words for ant and fear convince me with
Brugmann that foorma and morphée are
the same word, while Sanskrit shows that it
is the Greek which has become metatheti-
cal, the Latin and Greek originating back-
ground having been *thormda.

The Hokan languages have two parts of
speech: actional and substantival. The ac-
tional is split into four etymal classes: verb,
adverb, conjunction, and interjection; the
substantival is split into three etymal
classes: noun, adjective, and pronoun. The
actional is the main part of speech, the sub-
stantival being subsidiary, or adverbial, to
it.

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VOL. 33, No. 11

Almost every linguistic form is what
could be termed in Latin: versiformis,
changing in form.

A widespread Hokan trait is the infre-
quent occurrence of a completely dupli-
cated word, which could bear such Latin
terminology as reduplicatio tanta. Such
duplication occurs in Quechua, where there
is a tendency in the vernacular writing of
the language to place a hyphen between the
two duplicate members: sira-sira, scorpion.

A thorough study of compounding in
several of the Hokan languages, including
Quechua, -has arrived at the conclusion
that all compounds are double only, con-
sisting of an antebase and a postbase, each
of which may not, or may, in itself be a
compound, the two together constituting a
bibase. Furthermore, in all these languages
it is illuminating that the modificatory
precedes the modified, the postbase con-
stituting the main weight of the compound
and carrying the conjugation or declension,
or whatever is the inflection of the bibase
as regards sentence. When the postbase is a
verb and the antebase is a noun or adjec-
tive, the noun or adjective is adverbial to
the verb. Although vernacular orthography
may employ the custom of writing antebase
and postbase as separate words, or of writ-
ing affix as a separate word, as is largely in
vogue in the vernacular writing of Quechua,
cobasing and affixing are the actual status
and writing as a single word is preferable;
an affix is never etymable and in this an
affix differs from the usual theme or base.
Every compound in Quechua is a doublet.
Thus the well known Quechua compound
inkawasi, palace, lit. emperor-house, is a bi-
base, each of its members consisting of a
theme enlarged by addition of a little-un-
derstood postfix, but if either, or both, of
the members were in itself a compound, the
entirety would still be a bibase, and this is
a characteristic not only of Quechua, but
of every Hokan language that I have looked
into. Postbasal or the like is often a short-
cut term for postbasal noun, to which term
postbasal adjective is to be contrasted.

Languages far apart sometimes co-inherit
minor traits. One should notice a wide-
spread peculiar feature of Hokan com-
pounding which consists of an -n- of un-

Nov. 15, 1943

known origin thrust between the two bases

of certain bibases, while other bibases do
not have or permit of this. Thus Q uma-n-
tulyu, skull, lit. head-bone; but Q uma-
qara, scalp, lit. head-skin; Chim himi-n-
alla, moon, lit. night-sun; Chim _ himi-
samdu, devil

In Quechua very rarely a postbase is on
the verge of becoming a versal post-
fix. Thus -ruma, person, which frequently
occurrs merely with the force of a gentili-
ceous postfix. Or the meaning of one of the
bases of a bibase may have become ob-
scure, as in Q kaw-lyama, llama divinity,
the first base of which has lost assertion of a
meaning which it must once have had.

Again, where one might expect to find co-
basing in Quechua, the antebase may be
represented by the postpositioned form of
a noun or adjective. Thus Q wasi-q punku,
house door, lit. house’s door, instead of
wasipunku, house door.

It is a widespread trait of the Hokan
languages, including Quechua, to vary the
form of certain much-used postfixes with
the result of producing a better fitting to-
gether. Doublet forms arise, one post-
vocalic, and the other postconsonantal. The
shortest way of indicating such twoforms is
to let v stand for vowel, c for consonant.
Thus in Subtiaba a certain postfix has the
doublet forms: v-yi, c-i. If a postfix does
not have doublet forms, even a harsh com-
ing together of consonants has to occur.
Thus Q takeq-kuna, singers. Whenever a
morphon manifests itself in two forms, these
forms are known as doublets, and each has
a separate background and usage; just as
pre-Latin *dvis- appears both as dis- and
bis-.

Another feature common to many Hokan
languages and shared by Quechua is that
now and then a base without change func-

tions in two or more etymal classes. Thus -

Q tcalywa, to fish, fish. Or the functioning
may be in two etymal subclasses. Thus Q
nyawpa, locational adv., in front of, tem-
poral adv., long ago. In Quechua in rare
instances a noun can even occur as a post-
position.

Hyphenization to indicate analysis.—
Navarro Tomas has a system which em-
ploys seven different ‘‘signos analiticos’”’ for

HARRINGTON: HOKAN DISCOVERED IN SOUTH AMERICA

339

indication of pried apart constituent ele-
ments of a word. Common usage employs
instead of this system, advantageous when
one gets used to it, merely the hyphen for
indication of such analysis.

Listing of affices—The Hokan languages
on the whole run largely to the postfixation
of affixes. Yana for instance has no prefixes
at all, and Quechua recognizes only eight.
It is practical to list affixes separately ac-
cording to whether prefixed or postfixed,
under each of the speech classes to which
the affix can be added, and in three lists as
regards whether the affix is sentential, ver-
sal, or paradigmatical.

ACTIONAL

The main part of speech is the actional,
presented before the other part of speech,
which is the substantival, because this presen-
tation conforms with psychology. Dinner
should be presented before dessert, verb before
extraneity, all of which is merely expletive to
the verb.

VERB

The Quechua verb is thoroughly Hokan in
its complications, having only one mode (I in-
clude the imperative, hortatory, and prohibi-
tive in this mode), no gender, singular and
duoplural number, progressive, integral and
static aspect, four tenses, including near and
remote past, and a passive voice built by coup-
ling the static participle with the verb to be.
An example of this last formation is Q rikusqa
kany, I am seen, formed from Q riku-sqa, seen.

Verb Affixes
Verb Sentential
Q -taq, interrogative; Pomo da, interroga-
tive.
Verb Versal
Prefix
Q as-, slightly (compare Q as, numeric pro-
noun, 4 little); Sal as, child, son; Subt ax, a
little.
Postfixes
Q -ku, reflexive; Yana -gu-, self.
Q -lya, petitive; Chim -la, diminutive.
Q -pu, applicative; Yana -t‘p‘au, own.
Q -ri, future; Yana ni, ni, to go; Pomo ne-, to
gO.
Q -tcd, dubitative; Chim -dialhin, dubita-
tive.

340

Q -tci, causative; Yana -dju, causative;
Choct -tci, causative.

Verb Paradigmatical

Q -i, imperative; Yana -’i’, imperative with
third person object; Subt -la, -l, imperative.

Q -n, present; Chim -n, -ni, -in, incompleted
action, present; Pomo -n, present.

Q -na, future static participle, purposive,
instrumentative; Sal na-, purposive; Choct na,
instrumentative.

Q -q, -qe, present participle; Pomo -k, agen-
tive.

Q -sqa, static participle; Chim -ak, com-
pleted action; Sal -k, static participle.

Q -y, infinitive; Yana -’i, infinitive; Sal i,-
versusverbal nominal.

List of Verbs

Q hanlyay, to yawn; Chim -xaca-, to yawn.

Q hap’iy, to take; Choct habe-na, to receive.

Q kaniy, to bite; Q kiru, tooth; Yana -gal,
to bite; Pomo g‘a-, with the teeth.

Q kay, to be; Pomo ke-m, to be.

Q kirpay, to cover; Choct ialipa, to cover.

Q kuteuy, to cut; Choct katce-li, to cut.

Q mi-, to eat; Chim ma, ama, to eat; Sal ama,
to eat.

Q mukiy, to be suffocated; Sal *(i)mo’kLop,
to drown (plural).

Q munay, to love, to want; Chim mi’ina, to
like, to love; Pomo mara, to like.

Q nyiy, niy, to say; Pomo ni, to say.

Q onqoy, to get sick; Q umphu, sickly; Q
unay, to delay; Subt -ndi-yu, to be sick.

Q pakiy, to break tr; Sal (k)a’p‘axtenop, to
smash, to shatter.

Hunancayo Q paly-puy, to fall; Yana midja-,
to be heavy; Choct il-beca, heavy.

Q pampa-tcay, to even, to forgive; Yana
-p‘al-, to be flat; Pomo pai, a flat.

Q punyuy, to sleep; Chim po-, to sleep; Subt
-apo, to sleep.

Q putututuy, to stink; Chim -potpot, to
boil; Sal (k)o’potot‘na, to boil.

Q -puy, to swim; Yana p‘u-, to swim.

Q phatay, to burst tr.; Choct mita-i, to burst
intr. | :

Q -phay, to wash, in u-phay, to wash the
face; Chim -pok-, to wash.

Q phukuy, to blow; Yana p‘6-, to blow;
Pomo pu-cul-, to blow.

Q -qoy, to sleep; Subt -gu’, to sleep.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. ll

Q raqray, to split intr.; Q raxra, a crack;
Pomo dak, to split.

Q rikuy, to see; Yana da-, to see.

Q riy, to go; Yana ni, ni, to go; Pomo ne-, to
go.

Q ru-, to burn intr.; Q nina, fire; Choct lua,
burnt.

Q ruray, to do, to make; Sal ti’, to do; Subt
-da, to make.

Q saqtay, to pound up; saq-ma, a blow with
the fist; Pomo sax, to strike; Choct isso, to
strike.

Q takiy, to sing; Chim tak-, to sing.

Q tiyay, to sit, to stay; Q tuhu (archaic),
chair; Subt -ta‘u, to sit.

Q t’aq-lya, a slap; Yana -t!at’a-, to pat, to
slap; Pomo t’ap, to slap.

Q t’i-piy, to pull up by the roots, to pull out
(a hair); Choct ti=fi, to pull out or up.

Q teuray, to put; Q teurkuy, to load; Choct
tala-li, to put.

Q te’aqtcy, to water; Q tc’aran, moist; Q

- teapuy, to dip; Choct tcabbi, to dip.

Q urmay, to fall; Q ura, beneath; Q urupi, be-
low; Yana -di-, -di-, down.

Q wanyuy, to die; Subt -nyu-, to die.

Q wagqay, to cry; Chim wo-, to ery; Yana
-wa-, -w4-, to cry; Sal xdta, to cry.

Q yuypay, to count; Pomo mi-yi, to count.

ADVERB
Statemental Adverb
Negative
Q manan, no, not; Chim -nan, negative.
Q -tcu, negative; Chim xu-, not; Yana k‘u-,
not; Pomo kui, not; Sal ko-, not.

SUBSTANTIVAL
NOUN
Noun A ffixes
Noun Versal
Postfixes

Q -tca, nominal, diminutive nominal; Yana

-ts!i, collective diminutive nominal.

Q -na, nominal; Yana -na, -la, nominal.

Q -r, nominal; Chim -r, nominal.

Q -lya, nominal, diminutive nominal; Chim
-la, diminutive nominal.

Noun Paradigmatical
Postfixes
Q -kuna, duoplural; Chim -kule, duoplural,
in qa’-kule, ye. |

eae oe em es

Nov. 15, 1943

Q -wan, instrumental, comitative; Chim
-mdi, -mdu, instrumental; Choct -iba, instru-
mental.

List of Nouns
PLANT
Puant Parts

Q i-wa, plant, tree; Choct iti, tree; Subt ici,
tree.

Q maly-ki, tree; Q mily-m(w)a, wool; Q
maly-qo, fledgling already having fuzz; Q
maly-ta, whelp, young mammal; Choct bafalli,
brushy.

Q gisga, thorn; Q khisa, nettle; Q khisa -kuru,
fuzzy caterpillar; Sal xa’ke, spine.

ANIMAL
ANIMAL Parts
Corporeal

Q ay-a, corpse; Q ay-lya, meat; Q ay-tca,
meat; Q ay-lyu, kinsperson; Yana ya, person.

Q han-k’u, sinew; Q han-k’a-tcakiy, to
limp; Yana ba'ma, sinew.

Q yawar, blood; Chinchay Q yaar, blood; Q
yawi-ru, soldier; Chontal awas, blood.

Q wi-ra, n, fat, lava; Q wira-p’uku, lantern;
Q wira-qotca, god, God, Mr.,lit.lava-lake; Pomo
wi-m, n, fat.

Q saq’aqa, bone of dead; Sal axa’k, bone.

Q tulyu, bone; Chim -txun, bone.

Q tcuxtca, bodyhair; Sal ecax, feathers,
whiskers.

Q qa-ra, skin, pelt; Q sun-kha, beard; Pomo
he-le, hair.

Q aka, excrement; Q aka-yoq kelyay, rusty
iron, lit. iron having excrement; Q t-axya, ball-
excrement (e.g. of llama); Chim -wax, excre-
ment; Yana wak!i-, to defecate.

Head

Chinchay Q pe-qa, head, chief; Chim me-,
with the head; Pomo ba-, with the head.

Q yu-yay, to think; Q yu-kay, to deceive;
Q yu-pay, to count; Q yu-yay-kuy, to imagine;
Q yu-yay-sapa, discreet; Pomo ba-yi, to teach;
Pomo mi-yi, to count.

Q ma-t’i, forehead; Chim -mo-sni, forehead.

Q rin(k)-ri, for *sink-ri, ear; Shasta isak,
ear; Atsugewi asmak, ear.

Q wi-, eye, in wi-ge, lacrima; Q uy-a, face;
Shasta oy, eye; Pomo ui, eye; Sal u’, face.

Q wi-ge, lacrima, lit. eye-water; Pomo yu-xa,
lacrima.

HARRINGTON: HOKAN DISCOVERED IN SOUTH AMERICA

341

Q qho-nya, nose mucus; Q qho-rqoy, to
snore; Chim -xu, nose.

Q simi, mouth; Q sin-si, to show the teeth;
Q sun-kha, beard, lit. mouth hair; Q san-qa,
roof of the mouth (with -qa compare wasi-
qata, house roof); Pomo si-, with the mouth.

Q galyu, for *alyu, tongue (from qalyu has
come into Spanish Callao, name of the prin-
cipal port of Peru); Chim -pen, tongue; Sal
epa’’l, tongue.

Q kiru, tooth; Q ki-pi, worn-down dentition;
Q kaniy, to bite; Yana -gal, to bite.

Q kun-ka, neck, throat, voice; Q kunay, ad-
vice; Chim -ki, neck.

Q wax-ra, horn; Chim -wec, horn; Yana
weyu, horn.

External Trunk

Q qhasqo, chest; Chim usi, chest; Sal ico”,
chest.

Q tcutcu, female breast; Chim ci-ra, female
breast; Yana tc’ik’i, female breast.

Q wixsa, belly; Pomo woxa, belly.

Q pupu, navel; Chim -napu, navel; Sal xapi’-
cucwe't, navel.

Q wasa, dorsum; Subt giitca, behind.

Viscera

Q songo, heart (also used with congruent
noun having illative postposition, e.g. a
friend to dogs, lit. heart into dogs); Chim
-santce, heart.

Q kuku-pi, liver; Ancachs Q kukus, liver;
Subt gi‘ko, liver.

Q hayagen, gall; Sal t-e’rk, animal’s gall.

Q uspun, guts; Chim -pxa, guts; Sal p‘xat’,
excrement, intestines.

Privates
Q wa-, buttocks, anus, in wa-ra, pants; Q wa-
nu, manure; Chim -wi, anus.
Q tcupa, tail; Q teutcupay, to drag behind;
Q tcuta, to drag; Chim -texa-, to pull.

Pectoral
Q ma-ki, hand, arm; Q ma-te’in, upper arm,
upper leg; Chim -tran-pu, arm; Chim imu, to
hold; Yana mé-, to reach, to hold; Pomo mi-,
ma-, with the hand; Pomo ma, to hold; Sal
me‘’n, hand; Sal t’o’puk, arm, wing; Subt
nyau’, hand; Subt paxpuu, arm.

Anal
Q mexlyay, lap; Sal ma’pok, thigh.

342

Q tca(n)ka, leg; Q tcaki, foot; Chim -txan,
leg.

Q muqo, knee; Q maki-muqo, wrist, lit.
hand-knee; Chim hitxani-maxa, knee, lit. leg-
knee; Pomo moko, knee.

Pectoral and Anal
Q silyu, unguis; Q sily-q’uy, to scratch with
the nails; Sal icele’”’, unguis.

ANIMALS

Low Forms
Q kuru, worm; Q khisakuru, fuzzy caterpil-
lar, lit. nettleworm; Chim xawin, caterpillar;
Sal ck’ot, snake, worm, grub; Sub unyu’, worm.

Insects

Q usa, headlouse; utha, chicken-louse; Q isa,
louse species; Q uru, spider; Q uru-si, spider;
Pomo atci, louse.

Q tchilyiku, cricket; Sal tc‘e'l’, cricket.

Q pilypintu, a small butterfly species; At-
sugewl palala, butterfly; Washoe palolo, butter-
fly; Pomo lilawa, butterfly.

Q t’oxto, bee; Chim x6wu, yellowjacket.

Fishes
Q tcalywa, to fish, fish; Q tcalytcaly, to
wriggle in the water as a fish does when swim-
ming; Q tcalypu, to submerge intr.; Pomo ca,
fish; Sal swan, fish; Tonkawa esva-la-n, fish.

Amphibians
Q q’ayra, frog species; Chim qAtus, frog;
Subt kosta-lu’, frog.

Birds

Q tciwtci, fledgling (compare also Q tcutci,
thrush); Chim tira, bird; Pomo tsita, bird; Sal
ca’xwe, bird. Q tciwtci is the general term for
fledgling, with which is to be contrasted Q
malyqo, fuzzy fledgling.

Recuay Q watas, crow; Chim wa’la, wa’da,
crow.

Q waman, falcon; Chim wemer, eagle.

Mammals

Q huk’u-tca, mouse, lit. inner cornerlet, from
Q huk’i, inner corner; Pomo -uk, corner.

Q qowi, cuy (Cavia aperea) (this animal is
called in Spanish cuy alias conejillo de Indias,
the former having been taken over from
Quechua into Spanish); Q kututu, male jack-
rabbit; Sal kol’, hare.

Cajamarca Q tcitci, bat; Sal tc’e’mtcem, bat.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 11

AGE-SEX

Q qhari, man in prime; Q qosa, husband; Q
orqo, male; Pomo kawi, boy.

Q warmi, woman in prime; Q watca, woman
(vulgar expression); Q warma, young; Q wara-
ray, to chatter; Pomo xatai, woman.

Q tcina, female; Q tcitcu, pregnant; Chim
-sa, woman. ;

Q wawa, child; Q wawasimi, childhood di-
alect; Q makipwawa, finger, lit. handlet; Yana
-’ala-, child.

Q te’ini, small; Q hute’uy, small; Q tcuri,
father’s son; Chim tcitci, child; Choct uci,
child; Subt tci‘tci, small.

Chinchay Q teatca, old woman; Sal tce-, old;
Choct tcikki, old.

STATUS
Q masi, companion; Esselen -i’wis, friend.

KINSHIP
Q tayta, father; Q Tayta-tca, God; Sal tele”,
father.
Q@ mama, mother; Q ma-rq’a, to carry in
arms; Sal apai’”’, mother.
Q qosa, husband (already given above).

PHENOMENA

Q aqo, sand; Q tc-’aqo, white clay; Chim
ama-yaqa, sand, lit. earth sand.

Q katci, salt; Pomo keé, salt.

Q matcay, cave, Q matcu-la, grandfather,
ancestor; Yana mu-, hole; Pomo mo, hole,
cave. :

Q nyan, trail; Choct hina, road.

Q pampa, n, plain, adj, flat. (that pampa
means primarily flat land is shown by pampa-
tciy, to forgive, lit. to even); Q paxra, bald, lit.
smooth; Q pax-ta, perhaps; Pomo pai, a flat.

Q para, rain; Q parqo, to irrigate; Yana ba-
ri-, to rain.

Q pa-tea, the earth (that the primary mean-
ing is the earth is shown by Q patca-phuyu,
fog, lit. earth-cloud) ; Q patcax, 100; Pomo ma,
earth; Subt u:mba, earth.

Q phosoqo, foam; Pomo phus, foam.

Q phuyu, cloud; Cajamarca Q phukuta,
cloud; Sal pa’’i’’, cloud.

Q qaqa, rock; Chim q@a’a, stone; Yana
k!ai-na, stone; Sal (t)cxa’, stone.

Q qasa, cold weather; Q qhasay-ukhu, in
winter; Chinchay Q qaca, cold weather; Chim
xatsa, cold; Yana hats!it’-, cold; Choct ho-
tcukwa, cold.

Nov. 15, 1943

Q qa, seasonal stream; Q qo-, water; Q -qe,
water in wi-qe, lacrima, lit. eye-water; Chim
-xa, water; Yana xa-na, water; Sal (t)ca’,
water.

Q rumi, stone; Q ruru, fruit pit, seed, eye-
ball; Q runtu, egg; Q ranra, gravel; Pomo ta,
sand.

Q silya, gravel; Subt si--nu, stone.

Q tuta, night; Chim diwe-, night; Subt m-i-
duu’, night.

Q tciraw, dry season; Chim atcxumni, dry.

Q tchisi, to become night; Q tchilyu, black;
Q tchi-maxlyu, night-snow; Q tc’isi, last night;
Q te’extci, gray; Chim tcélé-i, black.

Q witca, up; Q wayra, wind, aloft; Q
wayq’0, valley; Q waylya, meadow; Chim
wiemu, up; Chim waida, upstream, east; Yana
-wasa-, above.

Q yaku, water; Pomo g‘oki, to drink.

ASTRONOMICAL

Q inti, sun; Q inka, emperor (one title of the
emperor was inti-p tcuri, son of the sun); Q
intu, to conquer; Q ilyay, to shine; Q lyilyi,
heat-eruption; Chim alla, sun; Pomo da, sun;
Sal na, sun.

Q paxsa, moon; Washoe d-i‘be, luminary;
Subt bii', day.

ABSTRACT

Q muyu, circle; Q muyuy, to circulate; Chim
nolle, round.

Q sinri, line; Q siq’e, line; Q siray, to sew; Q
sirk’a, vein; Q siru, net; Pomo ca-, with end or
point.

Q su-ti, name; Sal a’’se, name.

CoLors
Q puntcaw, day, daylight; Q pagar, morning;
Washoe pi-, white.

MatTERIAL CULTURE
Fire

Q k’antca, fire; Q q’ontca, hearth; Q k’an,
heat; Q q’onyi, hot;°Q q’ilyimsa, charcoal; Q
kanay, to burn; Q ghonoy, also qhanoy, to
light (ceremonial fire at festival); Q kanka, a
roast; Chim kowa, coals.

Q q’osnyi, smoke; Chim qe, smoke.

Q nina, fire; Q inti, sun; Q ilyay, to shine;
Yana -’lai-, to warm; Sal lo-L, to get burnt.

House

Q wa-si, house; Chinchay Q wa-hi, house;

HARRINGTON: HOKAN DISCOVERED IN SOUTH AMERICA

343

Chim a-wa, house; Chim w-issa, door, lit.
house’s trail.

ADJECTIVE
Adjective Affixes

Adjective affixes are partly the same as noun
affixes.

List of Adjectives

Q alyi, alyin, good; Choct ath, true, good.

Q amu, mute; Yana ‘ému-, to stop crying.

Q hatun, large; Pomo m-at6, large.

Q hun-t’a, full; Q hun-t’a-q, punctual; Q
hunu, a million; Yana ba’ni-, to be full; Sal
ep‘enateL, to fill (plural subject).

Q nyuxnyu, sweet and soft; Q nyunyu, fe-
male breast; Q lyulyu, tender shoot of a plant,
tender meat; Chim lo’or-en, soft.

Q lyusk’s, slippery; Chim -klu-, to slip;
Yana -lili-, to be smooth; Pomo les, to smear.

Q mosoq, new; Subt ma‘ca, raw.

Q poges, adj, fat; Yana p‘ui‘-, to be fat;
Pomo pui, greasy; Sal upi-nit, fat.

Q q’engo, twisted; Chim p’qélé’-in, crooked;
Sal (Sitjar) upk’i’na, to twist.

Q q’urqo, bitter; Yana k!ai-, to be bitter.

Q tchaki, dry; Q tchaka, hoarse; Chim
atexumni, dry.

PRONOUN
Personal Pronoun
Q nyo-qa, no-qa, I; Chim n6-ut, I.
Q -y, my; Chim -i, my; Sal e-, my.
Q qan, you; Sal k-, you (employed in the im-
perative only).
Q pay, he; Sal pa, that.

Demonstrative Pronoun

Q kay, this; Chim qe, this.

Q teay, that (by you); Pomo te’-, that; Subt
ta-, that. Q tcay is the only demonstrative
which is also used as a verb prefix meaning
that already referred to.

Interrogative Pronoun
Qima, what?; Sal ma-s, someone; Subt
ma’‘-na, what?
Q pi, who? Yana apbi-, who?

Numeric
Q as, alittle. (Q as-, slightly, as a verb prefix,
has already been presented above.) Subt ax, a
little.

344

Numeral
Q -puni, self; Chim p’un, 1.
Q iskay, 2; Chim xoku, 2.
Q kinsa, earlier kimsa, 3; Chim xodai, 3.
Qtawa, 4; Hokan (as reconstructed by
Sapir) *axwa, 4.

Consonant Prefixes

Several consonant prefixes, isolated in Que-
chua with great difficulty, have been found, and
are here presented together, since they have
bearing together on connection with Salinan,
one of the Hokan languages noted for develop-
ment of such consonants.

Cajamarca Q qewa, plant; Q iwa, plant; Sal
k-, intransitive, less commonly transitive,
rarely indicative of plural subject. The pres-
ence of initial q can also be interpreted as in
place of initial ’, unwritten in the present paper.

Q p-ilyu, crown; Q ilya-y, to shine; Q m-
alyma, earth prepared for sowing; Q halyma-y,
to bank earth around a plant; Sal p-, transitive,
less commonly intransitive, rarely indicative of
singular subject.

Q sage-y, to leave; Q haqe-y, to leave; Sal
se-, substantive.

Q t-awa, 4; Hokan (as reconstructed by
Sapir) *axwa, 4; (but compare Yana daumi-,
4); Q t-axya, ball-excrement; Q aka, excre-

ZLOOLOGY.—Another Mexican snake of the genus Pliocercus.!
(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

SmM1tTH, University of Rochester.

Through the courtesy of the authorities
of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, of
the University of California, and particu-
larly of Thomas Rodgers, I have had the
privilege of examining and describing an in-
teresting specimen of Pliocercus elapoides,
which not only extends the known range of
the genus northward about 300 miles from
central Veracruz to central Tamaulipas and
into another faunal area, but also represents
a race distinct from any known previously.

Pliocercus elapoides celatus, n. subsp.

Holotype.-—Mus. Vert. Zool. 24689, collected
by Meldon Embury at Ciudad Victoria, Ta-
maulipas, Mexico, on June 31, 1937.

Diagnosis.—Like P. e. elapoides, but outer
black rings of each triad on body greatly re-

1 Received September 15, 1943.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, NO. 11

ment; Q tc-’aqo, white clay; Q aqo, sand; Sal
{-, nominal. |

WORD ORDER

W ord order has in each one of the Hokan
languages an established precedent. Initial
and final positions in the sentence are the
most emphatic. In Quechua the standard
word order is ovs, in which o stands for
objective, v for verb, s for subjective. The
interrogative postfix -taq, which has been
given above, is the only postfix of sentential
stratum presented in this paper, and im-
parts interrogation to a word or to an en-
tire sentence, a modulation which could also
be executed by voice alone. Chimariko has
two standard word orders: svo and sov.

RESUME

Experience in the evaluating of Quechua
words for comparison has been like that of
the geologist who explores waterway cob-
bles. The interior of the cobbles has to be
looked into and anchored before proveni-
ence is certain. As Quechua words become
in the future better analyzed, their connec-
tion with Hokan forms will become more
certain and standardized.

Hopart M.

duced, shorter than yellow rings, sometimes
absent; ventrals perhaps fewer (126 in a male
as compared with 128 to 131); black rings on
body perhaps more numerous (12 as compared
with 9 or 10) in males. Like P. e. schmidti,
except snout uniformly black (except at lip);
nuchal black collar not involving labials or
parietals and covering 8 instead of 5 scale
lengths on nape; and the primary black rings
longer, involving 3 or 4 ventrals and 43 or 5
dorsal scale lengths.

Description of holotype—Head scales nor-
mal; portion of rostral visible from above about
as long as median suture between internasals
and about two-thirds the greatest length of
internasals; latter two-thirds as long as broad,
a little more than half as long as prefrontals;
frontal pentagonal, the anterior edge forming a
slight convexity, sides markedly convergent,
posterior edges meeting at an acute angle;

Nov. 15, 1943

frontal longer (4 mm) than its distance from tip
of snout (3.3 mm) and posterior median edge of
parietals (3 mm); nasal completely divided,
posterior section a little larger and higher than
anterior; loreal about as large as anterior sec-
tion of nasal, a little longer than high; a large
upper and a very small lower preocular; latter
separating third labial from orbit, former
widely separated from frontal; 2 postoculars,
lower two-thirds size of upper; temporals
1-1-2, the anterior longest; 8-8 supralabials,
the last 2 subequal in size and larger than oth-
ers; 9—9 infralabials, 5 in contact with anterior
chinshields, 2 with posterior, the anterior in
contact medially with its mate, 6th largest; chin-
shields equally elongate, anterior slightly the
broader; posterior chinshields in contact for
about half their length; 2 small scales between
chinshields and 1st ventral.

Dorsal scales smooth, pitless, in 17-17-17
rows; ventrals 126; tail tip missing; anal di-
vided; snout-vent length 230 mm; male.

Black head cap extending posteriorly to tip

of frontal and anterior tips of parietals, uniform .

on snout except near lip, extending laterally to
about the middle of the first 5 infralabials; edge
of entire upper lip light; a light collar following
this, presumably yellow in life; a black nape
collar involving tips of ventrals, occupying 8
scale lengths dorsally, and involving extreme
posterior tips of parietals, the posterior parts
of the tertiary temporals, but not the labials.
Eleven other, similar dark bands on body, all
complete, involving 3 or 4 scale lengths ven-
trally and 43 or 5 dorsally, separated from each
other by areas about equal to or a little greater
than their length. A narrow light ring bordering
each black ring, occupying little more than one-
half of 1 scale length. Between the yellow rings
are red bands in which most of the dorsal scales
are black-tipped; this black spotting is usually,
but not invariably, more concentrated next to
the yellow bands, thus forming the effect of sec-
ondary black rings; these secondary rings are
indistinct, however, narrower than the yellow
rings, and sometimes not evident. On the tail
the pattern is much the same, except that the

SMITH: MEXICAN SNAKE OF GENUS PLIOCERCUS

345

secondary black rings are more distinct. In no
place do the secondary black rings extend onto
the ventral surface. The belly and subcaudal
surfaces are unpigmented except for the pri-
mary black rings; the chin and lower labial re-
gions are also immaculate. The red rings are
evident ventrally, however.

Remarks.—This specimen is markedly differ-
ent from e. elapoides, the nearest race geo-
graphically, particularly in the reduction of the
secondary black rings (see diagnosis). It re-
sembles e. schmidti more than any other race,
but in addition to being geographically distant
has narrower primary black rings and a mottled
snout; e. schmidti and e. celatus may be con-
sidered either as parallelisms or as slightly dif-
ferentiated forms of a more primitive and more
widely distributed stock. The latter alternative
appears the more attractive, for although e.
elapoides is centrally situated between the other
two races, its pattern is relatively highly spe-
cialized and is subject to frequent bizarre varia-
tion. P. e. laticollaris is another slightly differ-
entiated form similar to e. schmidti and e.
celatus, but having incomplete black rings and
more numerous infralabials.

With the addition of the present race to the
list of known forms, it is of considerable interest
to observe that every biotic province on the
Atlantic coast of Mexico is now represented by
its distinctive race of P. elapoides. While the
details of the distribution of the four Atlan-
tic races in Mexico are not known, a strong
correlation with the four corresponding prov-
inces is indicated, although a certain amount of
discrepancy in exact boundary lines of races
and provinces is to be expected. Although the
east coast subspecies of P. elapoides are now
perhaps completely outlined, at least with no
further additions to be anticipated, the races of
the Pacific coastal regions are very poorly
known. That two or three races remain to be
discovered and defined in that region is highly
probable. Whereas eight species and subspecies
of Pliocercus are now known from Mexico,
about 11 are to be expected, and, of course, more
may occur.

346

PALEONTOLOGY .—Identification of Actinocrinus chloris Hall.1

U. 8. Geological Survey.

Wachsmuth and Springer (1881, p. 146
(320), and 1897, p. 571) cite McChesney’s
species Actinocrinus tenuisculptus and place
A. chloris Hall in synonymy with it. This
precedent has generally been followed by
authors. It turns out that the two species
are quite distinct and indeed referable to
different genera. My attention was called
to this case of mistaken identity while
checking over some of McChesney’s spe-
cies. It was obvious that the specimen
figured by McChesney, if accurately drawn,
could not be the species figured by Wachs-
muth and Springer (1897, pl. 55, figs. 4a, b).
Fortunately, I found in the U. 8. National
Museum a sulphur cast of the holotype of
A. tenuisculptus made by Whitfield, which
agrees with McChesney’s illustration. The
type itself was destroyed in the Chicago
Fire. I had long known the beautiful lit-
tle species identified by Wachsmuth and
Springer as A. tenuisculptus. The identity
of the “A. tenuisculptus’’ of Wachsmuth
and Springer (1897) was established by the
fortunate discovery of the cotypes of A.
chloris Hall in the portion of the White col-
lection acquired by Springer from the Uni-
versity of Michigan. The species has never
been figured, and its identity has never been
recognized. It proves to be the form errone-
ously identified by Wachsmuth and Springer
as A. tenuisculptus. The following citations
will correct the synonymy:

Actinocrinus chloris Hall

Actinocrinus chloris Hall, 1861a, p. 3; 1861b, p.
275. “Burlington limestone, Burlington, Iowa.
Collection of C. A. White.’”’? (Lower Burling-
ton.)

=Actinocrinus tenuisculptus Wachsmuth and
Springer (not McChesney), 1897, p. 571, pl. 55,
figs. 4a, b—Moore and Laudon, 1948, pl. 10,
fig. 11.

The cotypes of Actinocrinus chloris Hall are
two specimens in the Springer collection in the
U.S. National Museum numbered § 1142. One
is an imperfect dorsal cup. The other is a some-

1 Published by permission of the Director, Ge-

ological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior.
Received July 9, 1943.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 11

EpwIn Kirk,

what crushed theca. There can be no question
as to their identity, thanks mainly to the dis-
tinctive character of the species.

Many of the crinoids described by Hall,
Meek and Worthen, and others in the early
days are based on badly preserved specimens,
and a minimum amount of time was spent pre-
paring them. There was such intense rivalry in
describing new species that a name was at-
tached to almost any specimen found, however
imperfect. When figured the specimen took on
a more passable aspect, owing to the kind
ministrations of the draftsman. Wachsmuth
was the first to be sedulous in collecting good
crinoids and spent days in preparing them.

Cactocrinus tenuisculptus (McChesney),
n. comb.

Actinocrinus tenuisculptus McChesney, 1860, p.
15, pl. diagram p. 17 (‘‘Burlington division of
the Carboniferous limestone series, Columbia,
Missouri’’); 1865, pl. 5, figs. la, b; 1868, p. 11,
pl. diagram p. 12, pl. 5, figs. la, b.

Not Actinocrinus tenwisculptus (= Actinocrinus
chloris Hall) Wachsmuth and Springer, 1897,
p. 571, pl. 55, figs. 4a, b.—Moore and Laudon,
1943, pl. 10, fig. 11.

This species is referred to Cactocrinus. With
equal propriety it could be referred to Teleto-
crinus. In a species such as this the decision as
to generic assignment must be arbitrary. It
is placed in Cactocrinus because it more nearly
resembles some species referred to that genus
than any species referred to Teletocrinus.

LITERATURE CITED

Hau, JAMES. Descriptions of new species of
Crinoidea and other fossils, from the Car-
boniferous rocks of the Mississippr Valley.
On title page: Descriptions of new species
of Crinoidea; from investigations of the
Iowa Geological Survey. Preliminary notice.
Pp. 1-12, inclusive, February 14, 1861.
Pp. 13- 18, inclusive, February 25, 1861.
Privately issued, Albany, NENe 1861a.

. Descriptions of new spectes of Crinoidea
from the Carboniferous rocks of the Missis-
sippt Valley. Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.
7: 261-328. “January” 1861b.

McCuesney, J. H. Descriptions of new species
of fossils, from the Palaeozoic rocks of the
Western States. Ext. Trans. Chicago Acad.
Sci. 1: 1-56 (Chicago, 1859). January 3,
1860. Author’s edition.

Nov. 15, 1943

. Plates illustrating in part the new species
of fossils, from the Palaeozoic rocks of the
Western States. And two new species, no-
ticed March, 1860. Pls. 1-9, ‘‘plates’”’ 10
and 11, with explanations. Chicago Acad-
emy of Sciences, April 1865. Author’s edi-
tion.

. Descriptions of fossils from the Palae-
ozoic rocks of the Western States, with illus-
trations. Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci. 1 (pt. 1,

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

347

art. 1): 1-57, pls. 1-9. April or [earlier,
1868.

Moors, R. C., and Laupon, L. R. Evolution
and classification of Paleozoic crinoids.
Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Paper No. 46:
i-x, 1-153, ‘‘figures” 1-18 in text, pls. 1-
14. June 15, 1943.

WaACHSMUTH, CHARLES, and SPRINGER, FRANK.
The North American Crinoidea Camerata,
837 p., 83 pls. May, 1897.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY |

601sT MEETING

The 601st meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club, January 14, 1942, President C. S. Ross
presiding.

Informal communications—J. B. MeERTIE,
JR.,spoke on nomograms of formulae on optical
properties of minerals.

Program—W. T. Pecora and S. W. Hoses:
Geology of the Nickel silicate deposit near Rid-
dle, Oregon.

W. G. Prerce: Heart Mountain and South
Fork thrusts, Wyoming. The Heart Mountain
thrust sheet of northeastern Wyoming is trace-
able from Clark Fork Valley southward beyond
the South Fork of Shoshone River. If it con-
tinues still farther southward into the north-
western part of the Wind River Basin, as ap-
pears possible, its linear extent is more than 90
miles.

The South Fork thrust is beneath, and is
older than, the Heart Mountain thrust. A
troughlike fold of the South Fork thrust sheet,
which appears to have been downfolded after
the thrusting, lies in the valley of the South
Fork of the Shoshone River. The rocks in the
trough have been folded into a syncline, and a
recumbent anticline presumably formed during
the emplacement of the thrust. Northeastward
from the South Fork of the Shoshone, the
thrust extends as a low-angle fault into the
Shoshone Reservoir, where it is thought that
the inclination and trend change abruptly, and
that the fault thence continues to the north-
west up Rattlesnake Valley as a high-angle
shear fault.

The Heart Mountain thrust probably was
not shoved eastward for a distance of many
miles by a pressure applied at the western edge
of the thrust. The active compressional force

that produced the thrust may have been di-
rected westward as an underthrust.

It seems doubtful if the western source of the
Heart Mountain thrust extends down into the
crystalline basement, for throughout its known
east-west extent of 35 miles there are no rocks
older than the Ordovician Bighorn dolomite in
the thrust sheet. Likewise the South Fork
thrust probably does not extend below the Sun-
dance formation of Jurassic age, for, although
this formation commonly floors the thrust,
there are no older rocks anywhere in the thrust.

The emplacement of the South Fork thrust
followed the deposition of early Wasatch strata.
The emplacement of the Heart Mountain
thrust followed the deposition of later Wasatch
strata, and after partial erosion of the thrust
sheet the ‘‘early basic breccia” of the region
were deposited.

Vertebrate fossils indicate that the Heart
Mountain thrust was emplaced near the close
of the lower Eocene. The South Fork thrust
was formed some time earlier in the Eocene.
(A uthor’s abstract.)

F. E. Matruss: Glacial events of the historic
period. Fairly complete records exist of the
major advances and recessions that the glaciers
in the European Alps have experienced during
historic times. These records show that toward
the end of the sixteenth century climatic con-
ditions grew more severe than they had been
during the Middle Ages, and the glaciers gained
considerably in length and volume. Alpine vil-
lages that had prospered for centuries were
overwhelmed by advancing glaciers, or ren-
dered uninhabitable by torrents of melt water;
and such catastrophes occurred repeatedly dur-
ing the first half of the seventeenth century.
Other periods of marked glacier expansion were
chronicled in 1680, 1719, 1743, and 1770. The
last notable glacier advances took place in 1820

348

and 1850. All these advances were of about the
same magnitude, but most of them fell short of
the limits reached by those of the early 1600’s.
Since 1855 recession has been dominant, and
since 1920 it has proceeded at an accelerated
rate.

From comparative studies of the moraines in
the Alps it is clear that the historic glacier ad-
vances have been by far the greatest that have
occurred since the Pleistocene ice age. The
moraines in Norway and Iceland tell a similar
story. These facts, taken together with the
abundant evidence that is now at hand that
great warmth prevailed during the middle part
of postglacial time, warrant the view, it is be-
lieved, that the historic period had been, in ef-
fect, a period of moderate reglaciation—a “‘lit-
tle ice age,”’ as a clever journalist has called it.

602D MEETING

The 602d meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club, January 28, 1942, President C. S. Ross
presiding.

Informal communications—H. D. Miser
spoke on the Red River Dam near Denison,
Tex.

Program—E. B. Ecxe.: Geology of the New
Idria District, California.

EUGENE CALLAGHAN: Some features of tin,
tungsten, and antumony deposits of Bolivia.

Rosert HE. ALLEN: The oil outlook in this war.

603D MEETING

The 603d meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club, February 11, 1942, President C. 8. Ross
presiding.

Program—W. C. ALDEN: Cirques, hanging
valleys, and high-level benches of Glacier National
Park.

WatterR H. BucHer: Method proposed to in-
troduce a concept of ‘“‘lamits of error’ into the
stratigraphic tuming of tectonic movements.

604TH MEETING

The 604th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club, February 25, 1942, President C. 8. Ross
presiding.

Informal communications—Earu INGERSON
spoke on measurements of linear elements in
the field.

Program—J. B. Mertiz, Jr., and R. R.
Coats: Tin deposits of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska.

R. N. Jauns: Sheet structure in granites; its

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 11

origin and use as a measure of glacial erosion in

New England. Sheet structure in New England |

granites consists of lenticular, flat to gently
curved exfoliation shells that tend toward
parallelism with the exposed rock surface. In
general they become progressively thicker,
flatter, and more regular with increasing depth,
and they have been observed at and near the
bottoms of the deepest quarries. Sheeting is
completely independent: of all primary struc-
tures in the rock and commonly transects con-
tacts between the granite and xenoliths, roof
pendants, the country rock itself, and minor
postgranite intrusive bodies. Evaluation of the
possible causes of sheet structure in the light of
present available data indicates that the re-
lease, through removal of superincumbent load,
of a primary confining pressure to which the
rock has become adjusted is chiefly responsible
for the large-scale exfoliation phenomena in-
volved. Insolation, the progressive hydration
and formation of chemical alteration products
in certain susceptible minerals, and the me-
chanical action of fire, frost, and vegetation are
possible minor contributory causes.

With very few exceptions the sheet structure
on the granite hills of northeastern Massachu-
setts and adjacent parts of New Hampshire,

where detailed studies have been made, is pre- |

glacial in origin. Its attitude with respect to
present topography therefore facilitates certain
comparisons with preglacial topography, and
thus permits minimum estimates of the thick-
ness of material removed by glacial ice from
specific localities. Cross sections that show the
critical relations have been constructed for sev-
eral typical hills.

The minimum depth of glacial erosion. can
also be estimated by a second, less direct
method. Not only do the granite sheets or shells
thicken with depth, but statistical data demon-
strate a fair degree of quantitative consistency
in this relation. The sizes of large granite bould-
ers—and therefore of the respective sheets from
which they were torn by the ice—thus furnish
an additional clue to their original depth be-
neath the pre-glacial surface. Results of studies
by the above methods suggest the removal of a

blanket of rock and preglacial regolith at least —

10 to 15 feet thick by glacial abrasion and
plucking from the stoss, or north slopes of most
hills, and of a somewhat greater thickness from
their east slopes, summits and west slopes.
Severe plucking and quarrying of jointed rock

bs setae

Nov. 15, 1943

appears to have been responsible for strongly
concentrated erosion on the lee, or south and
southeast slopes of many hills to maximum
demonstrable depths in. excess of 100 feet.

CHESTER R. LONGWELL: Some structural fea-
tures in southern Nevada.

605TH MEETING

The 605th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club, March 11, 1942, President C. S. Ross
presiding.

Program.—R. L. Nicuous: Flying bars in
Boston Harbor.

R. P. FiscHer: The vanadium deposits of
Colorado and Utah. Deposits of carnotite and
vanadium-bearing sandstone are widely dis-
tributed in western Colorado and eastern Utah
and have been the principal domestic source of
vanadium, uranium, and radium. At present
these deposits are being intensively mined for
vanadium. Most of the deposits are in the
Morrison formation, but there are some in the
Entrada sandstone and the Shinarump con-
glomerate.

Recent X-ray studies by Sterling Hendricks
of the Department of Agriculture indicate that
the principal vanadium mineral, heretofore
considered to be roscoelite, belongs to the hy-
drous mica group of clay minerals. This mineral
impregnates the sandstone, coating sand grains
and partly or completely filling interstitial
spaces between the grains. Shale pebbles and
finely divided ‘“‘mud” material in the ore-bear-
ing sandstone are rich in absorbed vanadium.
Carnotite and other vanadium minerals are
found in some of the fossil plant material as-
sociated with the ore. The vanadium-bearing
hydrous mica is in part rather uniformly dis-
seminated through the sandstone and in part
concentrated along bedding planes or in thin
zones that cut across bedding. Because these
zones form curved or undulant planes, they are
called ‘‘rolls’’ by the miners. Where the sand-
stone was strongly mineralized, as along the
favorable bedding planes or along the rolls, the
grains of quartz sand have been partly dis-
solved, resulting in a small decrease in volume
of the mineralized sandstone and causing minor
“slumping,”’ which is evident where the rolls
cut across the bedding at a moderate angle.

Ore bodies are irregularly tabular masses
which lie essentially parallel to the sandstone
beds, but the ore does not follow the beds in de-

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

349.

tail. The trend of elongate bodies is indicated by
the orientation of the rolls within the ore, and
this trend also suggests the probable alignment
of any adjacent bodies.

No satisfactory explanation can yet be of-
fered for the origin of these deposits. The ore
bodies appear not to have been localized by
such geologic structure as fractures or folds,
but within limited areas they are restricted to
certain stratigraphic zones.

Louis McCase: Application of a nes petro-
graphical method to the study of coal.

606TH MEETING

The 606th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club, March 25, 1942, President C. S. Ross
presiding.

Program.—W. C. ALDEN: Some aspects of the
geology of Glacter National Park.

P. D. Trasx: Some ideas on the origin of
northern California manganese deposits.

N. W. Bass: Relationship of crude oil to
stratigraphy.

607TH MEETING

The 607th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club, April 8, 1942, President C. S. Ross pre-
siding.

Informal communications —H. D. MIsER
spoke on the use of a common geophysical in-
strument for afternoon field parties.

Program.—J. PEopiEs: Some features of the
chromite of the Stillwater Complex, Montana.

R. E. STEVENS: Composition of some chro-
mites of the Western Hemisphere.

T. A. Henpricks: A cold spring manganese
deposit in North Dakota.

608TH MEETING

The 608th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club, April 22, 1942, President C. 8S. Ross pre-
siding.

Informal communications —H. C. SPICER
demonstrated an A. C. microchemical heater.

J.S. WiLuraMs presented lantern slides of an
Alaskan glacier surface.

Program.—W. M. Cany: Quicksilver deposits
of Sleitmut, Georgetown District, southwestern
Alaska.

G. A. Coopsr: Silicified fossils and their sig-
nificance.

D. F. Hewett: The Morro da Mina mine,
Brazil.

300

609TH MEETING

The 609th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club, November 11, 1942, President C. 8S. Ross

presiding.
Program.—R. W. Imuay: Jurassic formations
of the Gulf region.

CuarLes Mitton and Jack Murata: The
occurrence of Weinschenkite in Virginia.
L. G. Hensesst: Sandstone dikes near Salida,
Colorado.
610TH MEETING

The 610th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club, November 25, 1942, President C.S. Ross
presiding. President Ross announced the death
of Dr. HERMAN STABLER, Of the U. 8S. Geologi-
cal Survey.

Program.—MIcHAEL FLEISCHER and W. E.
RicHMOND: Mineralogy of the manganese oxides.

W.S. TWENHOFEL: A molybdenite deposit in
the Glacier Bay area, southeastern Alaska.

JouHN W. Frey: Oil in the mind.

611TH MEETING

The 611th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club, December 9, 1942, Vice-President Cur-
RIER presiding.

C.8. Ross presented his presidential address,
Clays and soils in relation to geologic processes,
published in this JouRNAL 33 (8) : 225-235. 1943.

50TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 50th annual meeting was held at the
Cosmos Club after the adjournment of the
611th regular meeting, Vice-President Cur-
RIER presiding. The annual reports of the Sec-
retaries, Treasurer, and Auditing Committee
were read and approved.

The results of balloting for officers for the en-
suing year were as follows: President: HERBERT
InNsLEY; Vice-Presidents: W. H. BRADLEY and
GEORGE TUNELL; Treasurer: K. J. Murata;
Secretaries: J. J. Fanny and K. E. Louman;
Members at large of the Council: R. 8S. Cannon,
L. W. Currier, M. D. Fostrrer, E. N. Gop-
DARD, and E. F. Ossporn; Nominee as Vice-
President of the Washington Academy of Sciences
representing the Geological Society: C.S. Ross.

MEMORIAL TO MISS OLIVE C. POSTLEY, READ
BEFORE THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF
WASHINGTON BY H. D. MISER, MARCH 26,
1941.

OuivE C. PosTLEY, a member of this Society

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 11

for the past 20 years, died at Emergency Hos-
pital in Washington on January 14, 1941. She
was born in Washington, the daughter of Dr.
Charles E. and Clara M. Postley. She acquired
her professional training at George Washington
University, where her major subject was geol-
ogy. Early in life she joined the staff of the
Geological Survey as a clerk and devoted her-
self to varied and responsible duties in that or-
ganization. In 1926 she qualified under the Civil
Service as junior geologist, and in 1931 was ad-
vanced to assistant geologist. She served most
efficiently as assistant to the chief geologist for
a period of almost 30 years—during the admin-
istrations of David White, W. C. Mendenhall,
T. W. Stanton, and G. F. Loughlin. Her capac-
ity for accomplishment merited and received
continued recognition and advancement.

Miss Postley, besides serving as the chief
geologist’s assistant, handled personally a great
volume of direct and written inquiries to the
Survey about the oil, gas, and coal resources
and the geology of the United States. She made
occasional field studies, chiefly under David
White’s guidance, in Pennsylvania, West Vir-
ginia, and Virginia, and through wide travel
elsewhere in the United States acquired much
personal knowledge of the geology of the coun-
try. Her knowledge of oil and gas is indicated in
her publications, which include several papers
on the oil and gas geology of the United States,
and maps showing the oil and gas fields in
Louisiana and Kansas. The Kansas map is
unique in that it shows the geologic ages of the
producing formations in the fields. It is the first
oil and gas map of this type that the Geological
Survey has issued. The Survey’s recently pub-
lished oil and gas map of the United States
bears Miss Postley’s name as a joint author.

In recognition of her work in petroleum geol-
ogy she was elected in1926to membership in the
American Association of Petroleum Geologists. —

As an individual Miss Postley was vivid and
eager, absorbed in the adventure of life, and
alert to all that it had to offer. She was in-
stantly responsive to friendliness; her generos-
ity, unselfish and untiring devotion to others,
and intense loyalty were among her outstand- —
ing characteristics. Her energy and enthusiasm
outran her strength and continued to the end—
perhaps hastened that end. Thus a great void is
left in her personal circle, and the Society has
lost an energetic member.

Nov. 15, 1943

OBITUARIES

351

@bituaries

Mary JANE RaTHBUN, an original member
of the Academy, died at her home in Washing-
ton, D. C., on April 4, 1943, in her eighty-third
year. She was born in Buffalo, N. Y., on June
11, 1860. What she knew of zoology she learned
largely through her own efforts and powers of
observation. Educated in the public schools of
Buffalo, where she was graduated from the
Central High School in 1880, she majored in
English and received a gold medal for excellence
in that subject. To her thorough knowledge of
the English language she attributed a great
deal of her success in later life. This mastery of
English is reflected throughout her extensive
correspondence with zoologists in this country
and abroad and in her many published
works.

The first time she ever beheld the ocean was
in 1881, when she accompanied her brother
Richard, later the director of the U. S. National
Museum, to Woods Hole. She often remarked
that it truly opened up to her a whole new
world, and from that time on she devoted her-
self largely to studies of marine life.

Her first employment was wholly on a volun-
tary basis with the old U. S. Fish Commission,
with which she spent the summers at Woods
Hole from 1881 to 1884, when she was ap-
pointed to a clerkship with a very modest
stipend. As Spencer F. Baird in those days was
both Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
and the head of the Fish Commission, which
he founded, it was but a step from one organi-
zation to the other. In 1886 Miss Rathbun was
appointed copyist in the division of marine in-
vertebrates of the National Museum, where her
duties as record-keeper and cataloger brought
her into intimate contact with the veritable
flood of marine life which descended upon the
Museum as the result of the intensive investiga-
tions of fisheries and aquatic resources of the
United States in which the Commission was
pioneering at that time. The beautifully written
specimen labels and catalogue entries in her
clear, flowing Spencerian hand have never been
equaled for clarity and legibility, and today
they form the backbone of the records of the
division of marine invertebrates. She was one
of the first to use that early block-letter type-
writing machine known as the Caligraph. The

station data and accession lists of the once
famous and still valuable Gloucester Fisheries
Donations which she ran off on that machine
are still in use.

Very early in her career Miss Rathbun be-
came interested in the decapod Crustacea, and
almost without exception they form the subject
matter of her 158 published works. The first
of these was a study dealing with the genus
Panopeus, published jointly with Dr. James E.
Benedict, her superior officer in the division of
marine invertebrates at the time. The last was
a monograph of the oxystomatous and allied
crabs of America, published by the U. S. Na-
tional Museum.

Included in her bibliography are a number of
truly monumental accounts of marine and
fresh-water crabs. The Paris Museum published
her treatise on the fresh-water crabs as De-
scriptions de nouvelles espéces de crabes d’eau
douce appartenant aux collections du Muséum -
d’ Histoire Naturelle de Paris, Bull. Mus. Hist.
Nat. [Paris], no. 2, 1897. The U. 8. National
Museum issued her four monographic bulletins
dealing with marine crabs as follows: The
grapsoid crabs of America, Bulletin 97, 1918;
The spider crabs of America, Bulletin 129, 1925;
The cancroid crabs of America, Bulletin 152,
1930; and The oxystomatous and allied crabs of
America, Bulletin 166, 1937. Two other notable
papers dealt with fossil crabs. The first, on The
fossil stalk-eyed Crustacea of the Pacific slope of
North America, was published as U.S. National
Museum Bulletin 138, 1926; and the second was
issued as Special Paper No. 2 of the Geological
Society of America, entitled Fossil Crustacea of
the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain, 1935.

In 1916 she received an honorary M.A. from
the University of Pittsburgh, and in 1917 her
doctorate from the George Washington Uni-
versity.

In 1914 Miss Rathbun relinquished her
salary and title as assistant curator in charg?
of the marine invertebrate collections, in order
that the money so saved might be devoted to
the hire of an assistant to ease the burden of
routine falling to that much understaffed
division. She continued her research work,
however, as associate in zoology, and in the 25
years that followed before her retirement from

352

full-time active work in the Museum some 80-
odd of her total 158 papers were completed.
Such personal sacrifice and devotion to science,
and to the institution which gave her her op-
portunity of pursuing the studies to which she
had dedicated her life, are seldom encountered
in this world. |

During her lifetime Miss Rathbun gave the
Museum her extensive carcinological library
and at her death bequeathed the Smithsonian
Institution $10,000 to further the work on
decapod Crustacea in which she never lost in-
terest and in which many another student be-
came interested because of her works and
personal encouragement.

Wa.po L. Scumirt.

With the death of CHARLES ScHUCHERT of
Yale on November 20, 1942, geology lost one
of its most eminent and most devoted students.
Professor Schuchert was born on July 3, 1858,
in Cincinnati, Ohio, where he lived for about
one-third of his long life. He was educated in
‘ the public schools there but never had the ad-
vantages of a university education. Like
several other noted geologists from Cincinnati,
Schuchert became interested in the geology
and fossils for which that region is noted. His
leisure and spare time from his trade of cabinet
making were spent in collecting and studying
these fossils. The Schuchert collection of
brachiopods attracted the attention of Prof.
James Hall, of Albany, N. Y., who invited
Schuchert, then 30 years old, to become his
assistant. In Albany Schuchert came under the
influence of J. M. Clarke and C. E. Beecher,
and under these incomparable mentors his
education in paleontology was completed. -

After leaving the influence of the great
Albany school, Schuchert started his practice
of paleontology and geology with the Min-
nesota Geological Survey. Then he became
assistant to C. E. Beecher at Yale for one year.
From Yale he went to the U. S. Geological
Survey for a short term and in 1894 became
assistant curator of paleontology at the U. S.
National Museum. There he served for ten
years, leaving in 1904 to become professor of
historical geology and curator of geology of
Peabody Museum at Yale on the death of
C. E. Beecher. In these capacities he served
until 1923, when he relinquished the curator-
ship at the Museum. In 1926 he became pro-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 11

fessor emeritus and retained this title until his
death in 1942. |
At Yale Schuchert taught many graduate
students and carried on numerous researches in
paleontology and historical geology. His most
important contributions to the latter are con-
tained in his writings on paleogeography and —
paleoclimatology which he, more than anyone ©
else, has made into a fascinating story. In ©
paleontology Schuchert made contributions to —
our knowledge of many groups of fossils. His
first love among the invertebrates was the —
brachiopods, and he devoted much time and
considerable money to accumulating the fine
Schuchert collection of brachiopods now at —
Yale. In stratigraphy he made contributions to —
our knowledge of the Devonian and Silurian —
periods, but in later years his interest turned —
to the Permian period. He died a few weeks be-
fore the appearance of the second volume of his ~
ambitious Historical Geology of North America. —
Schuchert served geology and Yale with —
single-minded devotion. As he once expressed —
it to the writer, he ‘‘married the science” and ~
gave his whole life and much of his wealth to —
the welfare of his abstract mate. Having no —
immediate family with its drain on his time ©
and pocketbook, Schuchert devoted himself to —
research, writing, and collecting. His salary —
and revenue from books were largely spent on ©
geology and the field work of many deserving 4
graduate students. His writings include more —
than 200 titles covering stratigraphy, paleon- —
tology, historical geology texts, and biographi- a
eal sketches and memoirs. }
Professor Schuchert was very generous and —
encouraging to the young men. In his later —
years his mellow philosophy and kindly in- —
terest strengthened and comforted many —
struggling students. Schuchert will long be ©
revered for these qualities as well as for his de- _
votion to geology, a devotion that helped him q
surmount the difficulties of early poverty and —
lack of training and led him to the foremost —
professorship of historical geology. z
Professor Schuchert received many honors: —
the Hayden and Thompson Gold Medals of the
National Academy and tthe Penrose Medal of —
the Geological Society of America. He received
an LL.D. degree from New York University —
(1914) and the honorary Se.D. from Yale —
(1930) and Harvard (1935). 4
G. A. CooPER.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

“WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 33

~ENTOMOLOGY.—Jnsect taxonomy and principles of speciation.:

DeEcEMBER 15, 1943

No. 12

J. MANSON

VALENTINE, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

: Probably no taxonomic science has been
_ built upon so many conflicting systems and
standards as has entomology. There are
three apparent reasons for this heterogene-
ity—the tremendous scope of the science,
its long history, and the diversity of ap-
proach of its many contributors. Further-
more, during the past few decades it seems
to have suffered an era of isolation during
which it attained a high degree of speciali-
zation and artificiality. The effort to stand-
ardize in terms of simple ‘‘generic’”’ and
‘specific’ characters, usable in keys, has
resulted in great confusion and has consider-
ably obscured the evolutionary picture. Na-
ture, deeply subtle, can not reveal itself
fully when examined piecemeal, each part
dissected from the whole; and a collection of
organisms so Classified is therefore apt to re-
flect merely an arbitrary system in the mind
of the worker, and to contribute little to-
ward a comprehension of evolutionary phe-
nomena.

Some of the early naturalists, such as
Thomas Say and John L. LeConte, un-
hampered by conventionalities that have
arisen since their time, seem to have had
almost an intuitive approach to problems of
speciation. Knowingly or not, they worked
as if impressed by the more or less qualita-
tive characteristics distinguishing repro-
ductively insulated populations—the true
test of specific integrity. They used their
judgment and rarely did they commit a
.serious error. Contrast their relatively
sound work with that of turn-of-the-century
nomenclators, whose deductive, conven-
tional taxonomy often led to such extremes
as the attachment of multitudes of specific
names to individual variations and anoma-

1 Received September 25, 1948.

lies, worn and bleached specimens, vague
geographic races, stages of maturity, and,
not infrequently, to the sexes of the same
species.

Of recent years, systematic workers have
begun to treat insects more as complex, liv-
ing organisms. They have found it better
science to study a relatively few species ex-
haustively than a large number of miscel-
laneous species superficially. There has thus
accumulated enough evidence in entomol-

ogy alone to place the species principle on a

firm basis of fact, and some hope now dawns
that the naming and arranging of insects

they have evolved. This practice, contin-
ued, will tend to produce a simple, flexible
taxonomy—one that may eventually bring
a gratifying degree of order to a subject now
in cqnsiderable chaos.

In simplest terms, the species may be de-
fined as a unit population of genetically
similar though sometimes outwardly varia-
ble organisms that will interbreed freely in
their natural habitat. No barrier due to in-
ternal factors operates to prevent normal
individuals from reproducing. In other
words, the species is a clan whose members
are compatible psychologically, physiolog-
ically, and morphologically. When closely
related species of this ideal type are not iso-
lated by spatial or temporal limitations,
they are insulated from one another as a
result of the operation of internal specific
systems (‘‘mechanisms’’), which may be
classified as follows:

1. Anatomical insulation. The lock-and-
key-like, sclerotized genitalic structures of
both sexes, often extremely complex and
usually characteristic of the species, tend to
restrict successful insemination to within
the species. _

“05° 393

"ay

354

2. Physiological insulation. Egg-sperm
specificity, i.e., incompatibility between the
sexual products of two species as exhibited
in resistance to cross fertilization, in abnor-
mality of development, in disturbances of
fertility of offspring, etc.

3. Ethological (behavioristic) insulation.
Specific selectivity, i.e., reluctance under
natural conditions to engage in interspecific
mating. This may be extended to include
ostracism and isolationism of hybrids and
anomalies.

The first is hypothetical but doubtless op-
erates to a greater or lesser extent in insects;
the second is a possibility that lacks experi-
mental proof in insects; the third, however,
is a demonstrable fact not only in insects but
in other groups of animals as well. Related
species of migratory ducks, for example,
traveling in mixed company during the
mating period, preserve perfectly their spe-
cific integrity in spite of occasional crossing,
whereas the same species will hybridize
much more freely in confinement. A similar
phenomenon occurs in ungulate, carnivo-
rous, and primate mammals. Indeed, it may
be said of all closely related and associated
species that a most important segregating
factor, and perhaps often the chzef one, is
preferential selectivity. This amounts to
habitual or instinctive reluctance on the
part of an individual to accept for a mate
any other individual, presumably of another
species, presenting sexual stimuli other than
those to which the first has been condi-
tioned. That this specific conditioning can
be artificially overcome, at least in the
higher vertebrates, has been adequately
demonstrated, and there is little reason to
doubt that, in like manner, ethological (so-
cial) interspecific avoidances between re-
lated and associated species of insects will
also tend to dissolve as a result of selective
confinement under laboratory conditions.

From a general survey over the whole
compass of speciation, beginning with
minor, local variants and culminating with
very distinctive aberrant species (many
monobasic genera), it is at once obvious
that the gradient is not a simple, gradual
one but is beset with numerous plateaus and
peaks that represent categories into which
various kinds of ‘‘species’”’ may be roughly

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 12

classified. Further analysis reveals a rather
distinct split of the entire picture into two
curves, which are more or less superimposed
at their bases. The object of the present pa-
per is to compare these two major categories
in their purest form in an effort to detect a
possible fundamental, causal difference that
might justify a clear-cut taxonomic inter-
pretation.

In groups of plastic organisms exhibiting
an abundance of valid species, it is a com-
mon phenomenon to find the most similar
forms (perhaps those of most recent origin)
living in closest ecological proximity. This
is well illustrated in the Coleoptera, where
species closest of kin very often live in inti-
mate association, providing evidence that
environmental segregation in these cases
may be virtually ruled out as a functional
isolating mechanism. Very similar and ap-
parently congenetic species of Carabidae,
for example, commonly share the same
micro-habitats, nor is there any reason to
believe that in most instances their respec-
tive breeding seasons do not at least overlap.
Two and even three species of cave beetles
(Pseudanophthalmus), showing extremely
close affinity yet representing unquestiona-
bly distinct forms, repeatedly have been
taken running together in the same cave or
cave system in which they are localized. To
cite another example, out of an almost in-
exhaustible field, certain species of archaic,
flightless weevils (Proterhinus) in the Ha-
walian Islands are proximate not only in |
kinship but in habits as well, being found
together on identical host plants. Very
closely related but discrete species not in-
frequently occur in pairs and occupy the
same macro- and micro-ranges. Familiar ex-
amples among the carabids are Calosoma _
scrutator (F.) and C. willcoxi LeC., Scar-
ites subterraneus F. and S. substriatus Hald.,
and Galerita janus F. and G. bicolor Drury.

Such species automatically receive the
acid test of integrity since, in the natural
state, they habitually refuse to cross with
their related associates although there is no
apparent lack of opportunity. The separat-
ing factor appears to be essentially an in-
ternal one—a specific ‘‘awareness’”’ or recog-
nition of kind. Furthermore, the phenome-
non is suggestive of an intrapopulational

Dec. 15, 1943

origin of an important class of species which
may owe their existence, in large measure,
to self-restricting conditionings, sexual and
social, within the morphological (muta-
tional?) range of the population. Indeed, it
can be maintained that speciation of this
type is fundamentally psychophysiological.
At least, when once it is started there is no
reason to suppose that it can not be sus-
tained by autoselectivity over and above any
help from anatomical incompatibilities that
may have arisen during the course of specia-
tion. Although the first-stage products are
not always easy to distinguish taxonomical-
ly, careful study usually reveals separating
characters that are multiple and localized
rather than generalized, constant rather
than fluctuating, and qualitative rather
than quantitative. Oftener than not, drastic
changes in male genitalia, of a higher order
than the usual variations in this plastic
structure, give the clue’ to such specific
dichotomy.

Unfortunately, there is a current tend-
ency on the part of biologists to treat geni-
talic barriers merely as another ‘“‘isolating
mechanism” on a par with environmental
segregation. Perhaps it would be well to
bear in mind that these distinctive anatomic
features are, after all, part of the speciation
phenomenon itself. It is confusing, if not il-
logical, to accept the results of a biological
process as their own initial cause. To clarify
the problem one must proceed further with
the analysis. Although the genitalic dis-
similarities that tend to insulate related
forms may contribute to the ‘“‘purification”’
of ‘a species, they should, in the writer’s
opinion, be viewed also as part of the conse-
quences of a far more intrinsic and complex
biogenic process with roots deep in the be-
havioristic psychology and sexual interac-
tions of organisms. Perhaps it is not too ex-
treme a view to hold that true speciation, a
phenomenon not encountered in the intri-
cate divergences of parthenogenetic forms,
or in the plastic instability of asexually re-
producing lower organisms, is essentially
correlated with sex. More completely, it is
the liberation of discrete morphological
momenta, which are to some extent sus-
tained and directed by the attractions, aver-
sions, and compatibilities of organisms, but

VALENTINE: INSECT TAXONOMY AND SPECIATION

355

on which these psychophysiological mo-
menta or conditionings are to the same de-
gree dependent.

In antithetic contrast to associative spe-
ciation is dissociative raciation, the prod-
ucts of which are customarily (but very
possibly inaccurately) termed ‘‘subspecies.”’
Typical raciation, as has often been pointed
out, is the effect on a species of an external
factor—environmental segregation. This
operates principally to circumscribe special-
ized adaptive salients and to establish
genetic strains much as would selection. The
segregating agency, always circumstantial,
is usually secular (geographical, ecological,
or temporal), though occasionally it is
biological, as in the case of parthenogenetic
forms whose various lines become isolated
by virtue of their inability to cross. The
ideal picture of raciation is one in which
autoselectivity is notably absent, the local
populations, or races, hybridizing freely
where ranges overlap. They differ from true
species in that they tend to exhibit distin-
guishing characters that are relatively super-
ficial, generalized, quantitative and fluctu-
ating. Even when, in extreme raciation,the
changes taking place may pervade the en-
tire facies to such an extent as to appear of
qualitative value, they may usually be in-
terpreted as alterations in degree rather than
in kind, since no new character is ordinarily
involved. Assuming, as seems permissible
from the available evidence in Coleoptera,
that totally different factors enter into the
origin of associative species and dissociative
races, it is not unreasonable to suppose that
the observable differences between the two
categories reflect on the one hand the rela-
tively internal nature of the speciating
‘‘drives”’ in contrast to the relatively exter-
nal mechanism of raciation on the other.

The two processes, though dissimilar in
principle, are not, however, mutually exclu-
sive, and long-continued isolation of sister
colonies might conceivably result in poten-
tial speciocentrism demonstrable as refusal
to cross when the opportunity arrives. It is
true that in cases of discontinuous geo-
graphical raciation, and of raciation due to
abrupt adaptation to environmental differ-
ences, populations sometimes exhibit such
conspicuous departure from ancestral type

356

as to render their specific or racial status a
matter of considerable question. The taxo-
nomic problems that thus arise are admit-
tedly often very difficult; but in the writer’s
experience indecision is due oftener to an
inadequate knowledge of the species in its
entirety than to the unavailability of valid
evidence.

In the Caraboidea, geographically dis-
continuous or ‘‘spotty”’ distribution of a
species is the exception rather than the rule,
discounting, of course, the clearly obliga-
tory type of segregation such as that im-
posed by insular, mountain-top, and cave
life. Nor does the condition involving obli-
gatory segregation necessarily correlate
with increased taxonomic confusion. In
cavernicolous faunas, for instance, it is sur-
prising how trivial are the observable differ-
ences between colonies of widely ranging
species of cave beetles (Pseudanophthalmus)
isolated in individual caves over a subter-
ranean system scores or even hundreds of
miles in extent—a phenomenon in distinct
contrast to the unmistakable, nonoverlap-
ping distinctions between related species in
the same cave. It is more than likely that
most of these populations have had an ex-
tremely long history of isolation; yet a re-
cent survey of the genus has shown that
there are remarkably few forms that can not
immediately be assigned either specific or
racial rank.

Products of mountain-top isolation often
exhibit similar conservatism. The following
is a typical example: Steniridia aeneicollis
(Beutenmiiller) and S. tricarinata Casey are
very closely related ‘‘species”’ of an ancient
stock of cychrine carabids endemic to the
Appalachian region south of glaciation.
These two forms are at present restricted to
the forests above an altitude of about 4,000
feet, respectively, in the Black and Pisgah-
Balsam-Smoky Mountain Ranges of North
Carolina and Tennessee. In their consistent
and distinct differences, and in their inabil-
ity or unwillingness to traverse the exten-
sive surrounding valleys, they stand out as
conspicuous isolation products in an other-
wise itinerant group containing five clear-
cut species” whose comparatively wide
ranges broadly overlap. At least two of these
species ascend the mountains sufficiently

' JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 12

high to live in association with the two sum-
mit-dwelling relicts. If we consider the lat-
ter as a single species, the characters that
separate all six are trenchant and multiple,
involving drastic genitalic and tarsal modi-
fications; whereas the relicts differ one from
the other only quantitatively, in minor
changes of contour, development of the in-
terstrial costae, and suppression of scleroti-
zation in the transfer apparatus of the male
copulatory organ. They represent a dis-
tinctly lower order of mutual divergence.
than do their associated relatives of higher
rank, despite the probability that these ex-
treme orophilic forms have had the long-
time ‘‘advantage’”’ of complete isolation
from each other.

Insular races often seem to be stabilized
by a similar evolutionary inertia. An experi-
ment performed by the writer illustrates
this rather clearly. A tiger beetle, Cicindela
vitiensis Blanchard, inhabiting the larger
Fiji Islands, is both abundant and ubiqui-
tous throughout its range. Each large island
and each of a variety of overlapping ecologi-
cal frames furnishes its distinctive race or
subrace. For many years vitiensis has been
considered the only tiger beetle in Fiji. Not
long ago, however, the writer discovered a
local, mountain-dwelling colony of another
cicindelid living in intimate association
with witiensis but apparently not hybridiz-
ing with it. The new form exhibits qualita-
tive specializations of characters present in
vitiensis that establish without doubt its
status as a distinct species as well as its
probable origin from vitzensis. Interspecific
copulation tests under laboratory condi-
tions gave the following results: With equal
numbers of each sex of both species present,
out of 38 matings observed, only 3 were in-
terspecific. The latter were abortive, recog-
nition apparently causing premature sepa-
ration. Psychological insulation of this order
coupled- with probable physiological and
morphological barriers could easily account
for the genetic preservation of the species,
while the fact that specific selectivity in
mating was not found to be absolute merely
confirms the closeness of the relationship. .
These data contrast strikingly with those
resulting from a similar experiment in which
two geographic races of vitiensis, differing

Dec. 15, 1948

quantitatively chiefly in respect to color
pattern, were brought together—the Viti-
_ levu race (vitiensis s. str.) used in the above
tests, and another (v. ¢mperfecta Horn) in-
habiting the island of Taveuni 100 miles
distant. Out of 121 matings observed in
cages containing equal numbers of both
sexes of the two races, 59, or almost exactly
half, were interracial.

It may well be that raciation under cer-
tain circumstances, such as at the extremes
of extensive, divergent clines, can proceed
to the point of potential insulation tanta-
mount to speciation. Indeed, there is some
evidence to this effect; yet the basic con-
cept of speciation through biogenic discon-
tinuity is not invalidated thereby. Fulfill-
ment of the species standard would still de-
- pend, in the last analysis, upon the natural
association of diverging groups and the
spontaneous building up of an internal block
between them. All the indications are that,
if there is a potential split, interracial aver-
sions must actuate the final disunity and
determine its permanence. One would there-
fore expect speciation by raciation to be, at
most, atypical, since isolation, the one fac-
tor most responsible for raciation, precludes
association, the one condition essential to a
true test of speciation. For example, the
most distinctive races of caraboids, and
consequently those most likely to establish
species, occupy relatively restricted ranges,
to which they are often secured by adaptive
and sedentary instinct, or confined by actual
physical barriers. Although negative, evi-
dence arising from this relationship militates
strongly against a total explanation of
Speciation in terms of raciation. On the
other hand, gradual eradication of ecologi-
cal and geographic obstacles over considera-
ble geologic time, followed by colonization
of available areas, could and probably has
played an important part in the union of
isolated races; but there seems to be no
more evidence that races thus thrown to-
gether will take a specific stand than there is
that they will cross. Field data from various
sources, including vertebrate as well as in-
vertebrate groups, have shown both to be
possibilities. Probably significant, however,
is the relative scarcity of observed instances
of insulation between merging races in con-

VALENTINE: INSECT TAXONOMY AND SPECIATION

357

trast to the abundance of cases illustrative
of closely related and associated species ex-
hibiting little or no indication of raciation,
past or present. It is therefore difficult to
escape the conclusion that intolerance of the
unfamiliar, regardless of mode of origin or
apparent tangibility of the departure, is a
more fundamental factor in true speciation
than isolation, which does not necessarily
contribute to the establishment of distinc-
tions appreciable to the organism.

Radical speciation apparently resulting
from ancient and complete isolation may, in
some cases, be interpreted as the survival of
the more specialized of two or more conge-
netic and possibly competing species. It does
not seem necessary, however, to assume ex-
tinction of the more conservative, ancestral
forms to account for drastically distinct en-
demics, since it is well known that species
confined to small areas, particularly to small
islands, often fail to meet the usual specific
standards of consistency established by free-
ranging continental forms. Their variabil-
ity, or “fluidity,’’ may be a direct result of a
sedentary life, or it may be due to the en-
trapment of genetic strains, or to both, but
whatever the origin such a plastic potential
must function as the ideal set-up for di-
vergent speciation of the true associative
type involving not only the new products
but the more conservative progenitors as
well. In the Carabidae, at least, endemic
faunas of circumscribed ranges are largely
made up either of obvious races or of com-
pact groups of many species. The much
rarer instances of single species occupying
isolated ranges usually fall into the cate-
gory of geologically antique, aberrant resid-
ua of one-time flourishing evolutionary
tangents.

In summary, the results of an analysis of
the species problem as presented by studies
in various groups of the Caraboidea in-
dicate that speciation may be defined as
relatively complete morphogenic (muta-
tional?) departure sanctioned and channel-
ized by psychophysiological conditioning;
and that raciation, a process involving en-
vironmental closeting, is the establishment
of genetic lines, adaptive or fortuitous, that
are essentially superficial and devoid of in-
ternal, insulating organization. The two do

308

not appear mutually dependent, nor are
they mutually exclusive. Whether raciation
attains the species level depends upon the
synchronous introduction of antipathetic
responses between two or more merging
races formerly spatially remote, an event
that certainly is possible but, supported as
it is by very few factual data, is probably
atypical. Whether or not the species level is
maintained depends largely upon the degree
of fixation of an internal ‘‘awareness’”’ whose
sporadic involution in related associates may
cause occasional anastomoses in the dichot-
omous tree of normally repellent, discrete
evolution. Endless shifting circumstances,
such as bring about sequestration, changing
habits and locale, introduction of new
faunistic elements, adoption of the parthe-
nogenetic method of reproduction, etc.,
may mask the history of a species, its origin,
deployment, and restriction, but so indeli-
ble is the nucleus of specific character that
the relatively minor alterations due to
change of life seldom, if ever, succeed in
eradicating the stamp beyond recognition.
Ali things considered, it is probably not too
extreme a view to hold that sexual repro-
duction, together with at least initial asso-
ciation of divergent elements, is a sine qua
non of the actual process of true speciation.

From the foregoing, two fundamental
evolutionary principles suggest themselves:
(1) True species may not be essentially de-
pendent upon isolation for their origin; (2)
secular isolation, though correlated with

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 12

differentiation, may not by itself be a pri-
mary speciating factor. Speciation often ap-
pears to be the spontaneous introduction of
new, self-insulating units within a parent-
species population; it is the end product of
self-augmenting, biogenic momenta involy-
ing the organism in its entirety. Typical
raciation, on the other hand, is the effect on
the species of group segregation, a factor
imposed from without and operating dis-
interestedly in much the same manner as
natural selection. To evaluate the mixed
products of these two processes is the chief
concern of taxonomy, a science whose com-
plexity increases with the plasticity, youth,
and colonizing drive of the group under
consideration.

The scope of entomological taxonomy is
so vast that the experimental approach to
all its problems is out of the question. How-
ever, if good judgment based on carefully
studied models takes the place of indiscrim-
inate key-character hunting, great strides
can be expected toward a system that will
reflect evolution. A supposed new species
should in every instance be subjected to a
critical analysis, both as to the nature of its
distinctions and as to the spatial relation-
ships existing between it and its nearest al-
lies. If these criteria were universally ap-
plied, systematics would gain immeasurably
in significance, for it would then portray
evolution in such a manner as to bring out
not merely degrees of differences but kinds
of differences as well.

GEOLOGY .—The paleontology and stratigraphy of the upper Martinsburg formation

of Massanutten Mountain, Virginia.)
Evitt, The Johns Hopkins University.

During the course of field work on Silu-
rian stratigraphy, Dr. Charles K. Swartz
found what at first was thought to be a new
species of the gastropod Lophospira in the
upper part of the Ordovician Martinsburg
formation in the Massanutten Mountain
region of Virginia. In order to determine the
significance of this fossil, Dr. Swartz ap-
proached the senior author, who has been
engaged for some years in a study of the
general problems concerning the stratigra-
phy and fauna of the Martinsburg, assisted,

1 Received July 12, 1948.

Mark H. Secrist and WILLIAM R.
(Communicated by E. W. Berry.)

since the summer of 1941, by the junior
author. As a result of this inquiry, a study
was made not only of the section in which
Dr. Swartz found the gastropod in question
but also of another section somewhat farther
south. The material collected has yielded
ten new species of gastropods, pelecypods,
and brachiopods. It has become evident
that both the fauna and the lithology of the
upper Martinsburg in these eastern sections
indicate conditions different from those rep-
resented by the upper Martinsburg farther
to the west and south.

)

Dec. 15, 1943 SECRIST & EVITT, GEOLOGY OF MASSANUTTEN MOUNTAIN, VA.

Studies of intermediate regions are not
sufficiently advanced to allow correlations
between eastern and western areas to be in-
cluded in this paper. We shall limit ourselves
to a description of the new species and a
statement of the evidence and conditions as

they exist in the field and shall make defi- .

nite correlations only between the two sec-
tions investigated in Massanutten Moun-
tain.

Location and extent—The area covered in
this report lies in the Massanutten Moun-
tain region of the Appalachian Valley
Province of Virginia. This mountain is a
large monadnock that projects from the
floor of the Shenandoah Valley and extends
about 50 miles in a northeast-southwest di-
rection. The mountain itself is double,
composed of two roughly parallel ridges,
_ which are the limbs of a synclinal fold in the
Paleozoic rocks, the more resistant forma-
tions of which have withstood to a greater
degree the processes of erosion that have
leveled the less resistant early Paleozoic
limestones to form the broad, flat floor of
the valley. The mountain divides this valley
into a western part and an eastern part,
which are occupied, respectively, by the
_ North and South Forks of the Shenandoah
River. New Market Gap, in Shenandoah
and Page Counties, is the only large gap
that cuts across the mountain, though sev-
eral smaller gaps offer passage for unim-
proved country roads.

The outcrops studied occur in two locali-
ties: (1) along the road near the northern
end of Passage Creek Valley in Warren
County, extending for a distance of 710 feet
(road distance) northward from the contact
with the overlying Massanutten sandstone;
and (2) about 40 miles to the south, along
the Catharine Furnace Road on the north
side of Cub Run in Page County, extending
eastward 1,350 feet (road distance) from the
contact with the Massanutten sandstone.
Passage Creek drains the minor valley be-
tween the two ridges of Massanutten Moun-
tain, having its headwaters north of New
Market Gap. It flows northeastward and
empties into the North Fork of the Shenan-
doah River east of Waterlick, just beyond
the northern end of the mountain. Cub Run
is a small stream flowing northward and

309

eastward into the South Fork of the Shen-
andoah River a few miles south of Newport
in Page County.

Underlying formation.—The Martinsburg
formation, where observed in the Massa-
nutten region, is underlain conformably by
the Chambersburg limestone. In this sec-
tion of Virginia we have recognized four
lithologic divisions of the latter: (1) com-
paratively massive, impure limestone with
several thin beds of bentonite near the base;
(2) nodular, thin-bedded, argillaceous lime-
stone; (3) a zone of blue limestone in beds
12 to 18 inches thick separated by thin beds
of shale; followed gradationally by (4) the
upper part of the formation, which, in the
unweathered state, consists of compact,
medium-bedded, impure limestone with
numerous clay partings causing it to weather
into thin sheetlike layers. The transition
from this last zone into buff-weathering,
preponderantly argillaceous lower Martins-
burg is relatively abrupt. Zones (1) and (4)
are well exposed at Cub Run, though at
Passage Creek the entire Chambersburg
formation is concealed. However, a com-
plete section of the formation is exposed
along Tumbling Run on the Lee Highway 2
miles southwest of Strasburg and about 5
miles west of Passage Creek.

Overlying formation.—The contact of the
Martinsburg and the overlying Massanut-
ten sandstone was not observed, but the
concealed interval in which it occurs at both
places amounts to only a few feet. The
Massanutten formation is a massively bed-
ded, white to gray sandstone and quartzite,
conspicuously cross-bedded and very resist-
ant, causing it to form prominent cliffs whose
talus slopes invariably conceal the contact
with the underlying Martinsburg. At Cub
Run conglomerate beds with pebbles an
inch or more in diameter are common. At
Passage Creek the average grain size is
much smaller. The contrast in the lithology
of the two formations is everywhere a strik-
ing feature.

Regional and structural relationships.—A
broad picture of the Martinsburg in the en-
tire Massanutten Mountain area indicates
that the upper part has experienced very lit-
tle change, though the middle and lower
portions have suffered both structural and

360

lithologic modification in the northern,
northeastern, and western parts of the re-
gion. In the Cub Run section, on the con-
trary, very little alteration or deformation
is evidenced.

An accurate determination of the thick-
ness of the Martinsburg in the Massanutten
region is impractical (see Butts, 1933, p.
21). Our measurements of sections farther
west and south at Monterey Mountain,
Catawba Mountain, Narrows, and McCalls
Gap, for example, give thicknesses ranging
from 1,400 to 2,200 feet. As a result of gen-
eral field observations, we think the appar-
ently much greater thickness in the Massa-
nutten Mountain region is due to structural
readjustments within the formation as visi-
bly expressed by folding, faulting, and litho-
logic deformation.

Inthologic description of the Martinsburg
formation.—In the Massanutten area, the
Martinsburg formation is not exposed suf-
ficiently for continuous investigation. At
Passage Creek outcrops suitable for strati-
graphic and faunal studies are restricted to
the upper part of the formation. The lower
part, where exposed, shows the results of
structural and lithologic deformation. At
Cub. Run exposures are continuous from the
massive Massanutten sandstone through
the arenaceous upper Martinsburg and well
down.into the argillaceous middle portion,
below which they are intermittent and of ir-
regular extent into the underlying Cham-
bersburg limestone. The following descrip-
tion is based largely upon the Cub Run sec-
tion:

The gradation from the argillaceous lime-
stone of the upper Chambersburg into the
calcareous shale of the lower Martinsburg
is fairly rapid. Weathering of the calcareous
material results in a yellow to tan or buff
color that is typical of the lower and middle
portions of the formation. Ascending, the
beds become increasingly argillaceous with
the advent of arenaceous material in the
middle portion. Toward the upper part of
the latter, sandstone beds for the first time
become prominently abundant. The grada-
tion from the middle portion into the upper
is marked lithologically by a change from
dominantly argillaceous to dominantly
arenaceous beds (Bassler, 1919, p. 156).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 12

Corresponding to this lithologic change oc-
curs the faunal change described below.

As shown in the measured sections, the
upper portion, characterized by an essen-
tially Maysville fauna, consists mostly of
brown, iron-stained, fine-grained sandstone
beds of variable thickness with some shaly
partings. Cross-bedding is rather general,
especially toward the top. Much of the
sandstone contains flakes of mica and
hematite and flat inclusions of slaty shale
up to an inch in size. In addition, being
somewhat arkosic in nature, it has a
speckled appearance.

Faunal description of the Martinsburg for-
mation.—Investigators of these rocks have
recognized a threefold faunal division,
namely, (1) an essentially Trenton fauna in
the lower part, (2) an Eden fauna in the
middle part, and (8) a Maysville fauna in
the upper part. Thorough investigations
have been made in the classic Cincinnati
area where the terms ‘‘Eden’”’ and ‘‘Mays-
ville’ have become well established through
long usage. In the Cincinnati area, the
Trenton is recognized as a well-defined time
and lithologic unit. As these formations are
followed eastward, the distinctions between
the Trenton and the Cincinnatian, on the
one hand, and between the members of the
Cincinnatian, on the other, become less
marked. In large measure the three lose
their individualities and more or less com-
bine into a whole which is known to the east
as the Martinsburg formation. Our studies
in the western and southern parts of the
Appalachian Province of Virginia and ex-
tending northward into Pennsylvania show
that, on both lithologic and faunal grounds,
several divisions of the Martinsburg exist,
for which, tentatively, we are using the
three classic terms ‘“Trenton,” ‘‘Eden,” and
“Maysville” (Bassler, 1919, p. 163), pend-
ing the results of more complete study.

Inasmuch as the purpose of this investi-
gation was to establish the relationships and
significance of the upper Martinsburg, a de-
tailed study was not made of the middle and
lower portions in the Massanutten region.
At Passage Creek only the upper or Mays-
ville part of the formation is available for
study. At Cub Run, on the other hand, both
the upper and a considerable thickness of

Dec. 15, 1943 SECRIST & EVITT: GEOLOGY OF MASSANUTTEN MOUNTAIN, VA.

the middle or Eden portions are well ex-
posed.

The following fossils, all well-recognized
Eden representatives (Bassler, 1919, p. 169),
establish the identity of the Eden portion at
Cub Run: Aspidopora cf. A. newberryt
(Nicholson), Pholidops cincinnatiensis Hall,
Sowerbyella sericeus (Sowerby) var., Hormo-
toma gracilis (Hall), Cryptolithus tesselatus
Green, and Ceratopsis chambersi Miller.

On the other hand, the Maysville at both
Passage Creek and Cub Run is recognized
not so much by individual species as by a
general faunal assemblage (Bassler, 1919, p.
170), which includes species of the follow-
ing:

Bracuiopops: Dalmanella, Lingula, Or-
thorhynchula, Plectorthis, Rafinesquina, Zy-
gospira. PELECYPODS: Byssonychia, Col-
pomya, Ctenodonta, Cuneamya, Cymatonota,
Cyrtodonta, Ischyrodonta, Orthodesma, Pteri-
nea, Rhytimya, Whitella. GasTRopops: Lio-

‘spira, Lophospira, Oxydiscus. CEPHALO-
pops: Paractinoceras, Spyroceras. 'TRILO-
BITES: Calymene, Isotelus. OstRacop: Dre-
panella.

In contrast to the Maysville of our west-
ern sections, there is evidence of only one
distinct faunal zone at Passage Creek and
Cub Run. Because of its excellent develop-
ment at the former locality, we have called
it the Passage Creek Zone. This zone, at
both localities, may be recognized readily
by the presence of several abundantly fos-
siliferous and conspicuously iron-stained
horizons, which weather into a porous con-
dition. In the foregoing fossil list of Mays-
ville forms, the only genera that have not

been found in the Passage Creek Zone are
Lingula and Oxydiscus.

Very few and scattered fossils were found
in the increasingly arenaceous beds of the
upper portion above the Passage Creek
Zone. Among these are the following:
Buthotrephis cf. flexuosa Hall, Palaeophycus
sp., Lingula sp.

The upper 96 feet of the exposed section
at Cub Run have produced no fossils.

Discussion.—The Eden at Cub Run is
comparable in lithology and fauna to the
shaly Eden of the western sections. The
general fossil representation in the Mays-
ville, however, is meager; pelecypods and

361

gastropods predominate with a relative
scarcity of brachiopods and trilobites in
contrast to their abundance in the argilla-
ceous and calcareous material of comparable
age farther west. The following, which are
associated with the Maysville elsewhere,
were not found at either of the Massanutten
localities: Platystrophia sp., Hebertella sp.,
abundant Bryozoa, phosphatic masses
(Butts, 1940, p. 208).

According to Butts (1933, p. 22), the
Maysville is characterized ‘‘by the profuse
and universal occurrence at the very top of
Orthorhynchula linneyt.’”’ Bassler (1919, pp.
168, 170), in contrast, states: “This Ortho-

CUB RUN SECTION

Thickness
Inter- | Hori- Description

Total val zon

242.1
95.3 =

Contact with Massanutten sandstone.

Barren, massively bedded sandstone,
rust-stained and prominently jointed.

Highest bed containing plant remains.

Lingula cf. L. nickelst Bassler.

Moderately cross-bedded, medium to
fine-grained sandstone.

Highest gastropod (Lophospira sp. in-
det.).

Highest abundantly fossiliferous bed, 2
to 3 inches thick: argillaceous sand-
stone, weathering reddish brown
(Colpomya faba cf. C. pucilla Foerste).

Shale beds becoming less frequent and
thinner. Sandstone generally lighter
in color. Cross-bedding more evident.

Highest Passage Creek fauna bed.

Passage Creek Zone consists of fossilif-
erous, rotten, rusty-brown lenses in
and between heavier sandstone beds.
Lophospira, Rafinesquina, and Parac-
tinoceras abundant.

Lowest Passage Creek fauna bed.

Heavy sandstone beds: very little shale.

Very prominent spheroidal weathering
in sandstone beds.

Heavy sandstone beds with shaly part-
ings.

Lowest pelecypod bed (Whitella mas-
sanuttenensis, n. sp., and W. nasuta,
n. sp., abundant).

Increase in thickness of sandstone beds.
No fossils observed.

Highest typical Eden fauna, containing
Cryptolithus, Sowerbyella, Cornulites.

A lithologic transition zone marked by
an increase in sandstone.

Below this horizon is typical Eden
lithology consisting of alternating
light and dark beds of sandstone and
shale, breaking into small, platy
fragments. Eden thickness undeter-
mined.

146.8

129.2

SGronl a

109.9

90.7

109.9 | 49.6 —_—

60.3

9.3 9.3 ==

0.0; 0.0; 0.0

362

PASSAGE CREEK SECTION

Thickness
Inter- | Hori- Description

Total val zon

Lowest Massanutten sandstone out-
crop taken as contact.

Entirely concealed, largely covered
with Massanutten sandstone float.
Spring enclosure on west side of road
containing highest Martinsburg out-

crop.

Largely concealed, with a few scattered
outcrops. Barren, fine-grained sand-
stone breaking into flat joint blocks.

Last fossils observed.

More or less massively bedded, fine-
grained sandstone with a few thin
beds containing Passage Creek as-
semblage.

Massive, fine-grained, gray to brown
sandstone.

Extremely prolific 6-inch porous bed in
which Lophospira is very abundant.

Very conspicuous porous bed.

A few thin porous beds with Lophospira
abundant.

Massive sandstone with hematite
particles and a few scattered Rafines-
quina and pelecypods. Rusty weath-
ering prominent.

Typical Passage Creek lithologic and
faunal zone, containing frequent fos-
siliferous beds of variable thickness
and extent, with Paractinoceras, then
Lophospira, and then Rafinesquina
conspicuous in ascending order.

At road level, beginning of more or less
continuous exposures. Arkosic, fine-
grained sandstone, thinly laminated
throughout, weathering into blocky
beds, speckled with hematite.

Concealed.

0.0 | Lowest Martinsburg outcrop consisting

of brown fine-grained sandstone beds,

somewhat arkosic, weathering rusty.

Rafinesquina alternata mediolineata,

n. var., abundant; also Dalmanella

sp.

95.0

95.0 | 11.0 a

84.0

64.0

54.0

rhynchula bed everywhere marks the divid-
ing line between the Lower Maysville
(Fairview) and the Upper Maysville (Mc-
Millan) divisions, the latter in the Appa-

lachian region being an _ unfossiliferous,

gray sandstone apparently of continental
origin and equivalent to the Oswego sand-
stone of the New York section.” In sections
already examined elsewhere in the Appa-
lachian region, we have found this Ortho-
rhynchula zone usually well developed near
the top of the formation (Bassler, 1919, p.
160). In the Massanutten region—specifi-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 12

cally, in the Passage Creek section—one
depauperate specimen of O. linneyz (James)
was found. This occurred in the lower part
of the Passage Creek Zone, which at the
type locality is 106 feet, and at Cub Run
about 200 feet, below the top of the Mar-
tinsburg.

This paucity of characteristic Maysville
forms suggests striking differences in condi-
tions of both environment and deposition
between this area and those farther west.

Butts (1940, p. 202) reports the lack of
other formations between the Martinsburg
and the Massanutten in this region, and we
have found neither Juniata nor Oswego
beds as such in either of our sections. How-
ever, close examination of the Martinsburg
of Little North Mountain, which lies be-
tween the western sections and Massanut-
ten Mountain, may indicate whether the
barren, somewhat cross-bedded, ferruginous
sandstone beds lying above the fossiliferous
part of the Passage Creek Zone are Martins-
burg (Maysville) in age or are to be corre-
lated with either the Oswego or the Juni-
ata, or both, since these latter formations
occur on Little North Mountain (Butts and
Edmundson, 1939, p. 169). It is evident that
the intermittent development of these inter-
vening formations is a problem of such large
scope that it is beyond the province of this
paper to do more than note their apparent
omission in the Massanutten syncline
(Butts and Edmundson, 1939, p. 179).

In the two sections under discussion,
variations in the lithology of the compara-
tively barren strata above the Passage
Creek Zone suggest the possibility that they
may have accumulated under deltaic condi-
tions (Bassler, 1919, p. 161) with the source ©
of the material closer to Cub Run than to
Passage Creek. As evidence supporting this
theory, the following observations are pre-
sented:

1. At Passage Creek the measured thick-
ness of this zone is 68 feet, while at Cub
Run it is almost three times as great, being
182 feet.

2. The sandstone beds contain scattered
plant remains but no marine fossils.

3. As stated above, there is a striking ab-
sence of characteristic Maysville forms.

Dec. 15, 1948 SECRIST & EVITT: GEOLOGY OF MASSANUTTEN MOUNTAIN, VA.

4. The material at Cub Run is more con-
sistently arenaceous in character than that
at Passage Creek.

5. There is a stronger development of
cross-bedding at Cub Run than at Passage
Creek.

6. At Cub Run the basal Massanutten is
somewhat conglomeratic.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES
BRACHIOPODA

Rafinesquina alternata mediolineata, n. var.
Figs. 13, 14

All specimens are internal casts. Shell attain-
ing large size, semioval, the average ratio of
width to length for holotype and paratypes be-
ing about 1.4 to 1. Dimensions of holotype:
width 36 mm, length 30 mm. Hinge line
straight, equal to the greatest width of the
valve. Cardinal angles rectangular to very
slightly mucronate. Ventral valve gently and
evenly convex, the beak moderately promi-
nent; costellae small, rounded, and distinct, usu-
ally every fourth one more pronounced from
the beak to the anterior margin. The pro-
nounced costellae without bifurcations, but
bifurcation of the smaller ones common in the
anterior half of the valve. The outstanding
surficial feature is a very prominent, straight,
central costella extending the full length of the
valve, but causing no extension of the anterior
margin, which is evenly rounded. Faint con-
centric growth ridges indicated. Dorsal valve
same as ventral valve in size and outline; flat,
except for a very slight projection of the beak;
finely and evenly costellate, lacking the alter-
nations of the ventral valve.

Locality. Passage Creek.

Remarks.—The varietal name mediolineata
has been chosen because of the presence of the
very conspicuous median striation on the ven-
tral valve, which is lacking in R. alternata
(Emmons). In other respects the two are simi-
lar.

This variety does not have the mucronate
shape of R. mucronata Foerste; R. squamula
James does not exhibit an alternation in the
size of the costellae; R. alternata centristriata
Ruedemann occurs much lower stratigraphi-
cally; and in R. nasuta (Conrad) the prominent
central line is not a constant feature and the
anterior margin is noticeably produced.

363

MOLLUSCA
PELECYPODA

Byssonychia bowmani, n. sp.
Figs. 4, 5

Cast of left valve. Shell small. Outline sub-
quadrangular with rounded base. Beak small,
rounded in section, acutely pointed, curving
forward slightly and extending a short distance
beyond the hingeline. Umbone very prominent,
expanding evenly toward the entire ventral
margin of the shell. Hinge line straight and
about two-thirds the greatest length of the
shell making an angle of approximately 90 de-
grees with the anterior margin. Height 32 mm;
thickness 10 mm. Anterior outline about
straight, the margin projecting slightly at its
lower end to form the greatest length of the
shell. From this point the ventral margin is
strongly and convexly rounded, flattening
somewhat as it approaches the posterior cardi-
nal angle. Byssal opening indistinct. Costae
fine, rounded, numbering from 65 to 70 and
increasing very gradually in strength from the
posterior to the anterior margins. Interior not
Seen.

Locality.— Passage Creek.

Remarks.—In outline this species is similar
to B. richmondensis Ulrich, but in the latter the
anterior margin is longer and the angle between
the hinge line and the anterior margin is
greater. Both B. richmondensis Ulrich and B.
praecursa Ulrich are generally more elongate
from beak to ventral margin. The specific char-
acters of B. bowmani are the great number of
costae (65 to 70, as compared with 38 to 42 for
B. precursa and about 50 for B. richmondensis),
a shorter anterior margin, and a less elongate
shell.

This distinctive species is named in honor of
Dr. Isaiah Bowman, president of The Johns
Hopkins University.

Cuneamya umbonata, n. sp.
Fig. 8

Cast of the interior of right valve. Shell of
medium size, having a length of 25 mm and a
height of 15 mm, larger at the anterior end and
tapering to a rounded posterior point; beak
very large, high, pointed and incurved, pro-
jecting 2.5 mm above the cardinal line. Apex of
beak situated about one-third the length from
the anterior end. Cardinal line straight for one-

Fig. 1—Whitella massanuttenensis, n. sp., cast of left valve of holotype. Fig. 2.—W. nasuta, n. sp.,
plastic cast of holotype, mold of right valve. Fig. 3——Lophospira expansa, n. sp., cast of interior of
holotype. Figs. 4, 5—Byssonychia bowmani, n. sp., cast of left valve of holotype: 4, side view; 5,
front view. Figs. 6, 7, 11.—Lophespira tropidophora (Meek), plastic casts of interior molds: 6, 7, two
views of one specimen; 11, another specimen; all indicating common variations. Fig. 8.—Cuneamya
umbonata, n. sp., cast of right valve of holotype. Fig. 9—JLophospira breviangulata, n. sp., plastic
cast of holotype, mold of interior. Fig. 10.—L. trilineata, n. sp., plastic cast of holotype, mold of
exterior. Fig. 12.—JL. liosutura, n. sp., plastic cast of holotype, mold of exterior. Figs. 13, 14.—
Rafinesquina alternata mediolineata, n. var.: 13, holotype, external cast of ventral valve; 14, paratype,
immature specimen. Fig. 15.—Pterinea maternata, n. sp., cast of left valve of holotype (umbone
broken away, gastropod fragment lodged in opening).

All from Passage Creek except Fig. 2, which is from Cub Run.

Dec. 15, 1943 SECRIST & EVITT: GEOLOGY OF MASSANUTTEN MOUNTAIN, VA.

half the length of the shell, posterior to the
beak; posterior portion of the cardinal area
slightly alate. Escutcheon well marked; lunule
heart-shaped, distinct. Base of lunule forming
anterior point of shell, the ventral margin curv-
ing convexly from this point to the posterior
extremity. Umbonal ridge rounded, sloping to
the posterior point. No trace of a sulcus, a hori-
zontal longitudinal section being at no place
concave. A line through the beak, through the
widest part of the shell, makes an angle of
about 20 degrees with the vertical. Greatest
thickness of the valve 15 mm from which it

tapers evenly and abruptly to the anterior, and |

gently to the posterior extremities. Faint con-
centric growth lines present.
Locality—Passage Creek.
Remarks—The striking prominence and
convexity of the umbo distinguish this species
- from others of the genus.

Pterinea maternata, n. sp.
Fig. 15

Cast of left valve. Shell subrhomboidal, ex-
ceedingly convex. Hinge line straight, its length
being 18 mm. Greatest length of shell 22 mm;
height 20 mm; thickness 7 mm. Anterior wing
short and broadly rounded. Posterior wing
short, triangular, extending a little beyond the
margin. Posterocardinal area alate. Beak de-
stroyed. Umbonal ridge not marked, the whole
valve having a swollen appearance. Postero-
ventral and ventral margins evenly rounded.
Anterior margin nearly straight and making an
angle, if extended, of about 75° with the hinge
line.

Locality.—Passage Creek.

Remarks.—The most distinctive characteris-

tic of this species is its striking convexity.

Whitella massanuttenensis, n. sp.
Fig. 1

_ Cast of left valve. Shell of medium size, very
convex, subrhomboidal in outline, slightly the
widest posteriorly; length measured from upper
anterior to lower posterior angle 43 mm; great-
est height 33 mm. Anterior margin gently
rounded and nearly vertical in the upper half;
sharply rounded at the extremity of the hinge.
Ventral margin evenly and gently convex to the
posterior extremity of the umbonal ridge. Post-
basal angle strongly rounded. Posterior margin
subparallel to the anterior margin, moderately

365

rounded at the extremity of the hinge. Beak
small and very prominent, not strongly in-
curved, situated about one-third to one-fourth
the length behind the anterior extremity. Um-
bonal ridge very slightly developed as com-
pared with the majority of the species of the
genus. Sinus area slightly flattened in the ven-
tral half of the shell, situated about midway in
the length and subparallel to the umbonal
ridge. Indications of imbricating and concen-
tric growth lines present.

Locality — Passage Creek.

Remarks.— Whitella compressa Ulrich is more
rounded, compressed, and slightly more erect
than this species. W. obliquata Ulrich has much
stronger umbonal ridges with the beak situated
more anteriorly. W. ohioensis Ulrich is more
rounded in outline and less convex.

Whitella nasuta, n. sp.
Fig. 2 ‘

Mold of right valve. Shell medium, com-
pressed convex, subrhomboidal in outline, elon-
gate; length measured from upper anterior to
lower posterior angle 43 mm; greatest height 28
mm. Widest at the posterocardinal angle.
Hinge line almost straight. Anterior area flat-
tened and produced into arounded front mar-
gin. The ventral margin shows an evenly con-
vex curve from the posterior extremity of the
umbonal ridge to the anterocardinal angle.
Posterior end of shell evenly rounded. Postero-
cardinal angle very wide. Umbone small, com-
pressed, slightly incurved, protruding moder-
ately above the hinge line. Umbonal ridge very
low, disappearing in the posterior third. Um-
bone situated about one-third the length be-
hind the anterior extremity.

Locality —Cub Run.

Remarks.—This species bears a general re-
semblance to W. massanuttenensis, n. sp., but is
distinguished by its nasute anterior end and
more compressed shell.

GASTROPODA

Lophospira breviangulata, n. sp.
Fig. 9
Cast of interior. Apical angle 90°+. Height
8 mm. Volutions no more than 4. Probably tri-
carinate; all carinae rounded. Toward the aper-
ture there is an indication of a lower carina
which seems to fuse with the peripheral one
higher in the shell. The upper carina is sepa-

366

rated from the peripheral one by a distinct but
very narrow concave area, the position of which
makes the upper slope of the whorl very wide
and slightly convex. The last whorl is greatly
expanded. Sutures well indented. Whorls com-
pressed longitudinally. Umbilicus and aperture
not seen; surface ornamentation obscure.

Locality — Passage Creek.

Remarks.—This species is distinguished by
the position of the upper carina which causes
the slope between it and the suture to be unusu-
ally wide.

Lophospira expansa, n. sp.
Fig. 3

Cast of interior. Shell medium, volutions 4 to
5. Height 18 mm, diameter 16 mm. Apical angle
about 90°. Whorls uniangular. Earlier whorls
compressed and rounded, the upper slope being
a little greater than the lower. Sutures moder-
ately indented. Last whorl greatly expanded
with a prominent rounded peripheral keel.-Up-
per slope slightly concave and of such width as
to be in striking contrast to the narrow and
rounded surfaces of the earlier whorls which,
exclusive of the last whorl, have an apical angle
of about 75°. Lower surface of last whorl
convex and sloping inward abruptly to the
columella, giving the whorl a shallow or com-
pressed appearance in relation to its compar-
atively great diameter. Surface markings
indistinct.

Locality.—Passage Creek.

Remarks.—This species generally resembles
L. tropidophora (Meek) but differs from it in
the striking expansion of the last whorl.

Lophospira liosutura, n. sp.
Fig. 12

Mold of exterior. Apical angle about 50°.
Volutions 5. Spire rather elongate. Height 13
mm, diameter of last whorl 9 mm. Peripheral
carina prominent. Upper surface of the last
whorl flat from the inner margin of the keel
approximately to the suture. Inclination of
this upper surface very steep. Upper surface of
earlier whorls convex and steep. Lower surface
of whorls very slightly convex, inclined very
steeply, and fused with the upper surface of the
next whorl to form a smooth, unbroken sutural
curve.

Locality.—Passage Creek.

Remarks.—This species is distinguished by

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 12

its smooth sutural curve and rather elongate
spire. It compares only in general shape with
L. manitoulinensis Foerste which is described
from the Richmond of Ontario and Quebec.
The latter, however, is much larger, having a
height of 45 mm, and more closely resembles
L. sumnerensis (Safford) and L. tropidophora
(Meek) than does the present species.

Lophospira trilineata, n. sp.
Fig. 10

Mold of exterior. Apical angle 30° to 35°.
Height 7 mm. Volutions 4; angular. Lower ca-
rina, if present, hidden. Central carina on the
outer extremity of the volution very angular
and prominent having on each side a sharp ele-
vated ridge with a narrow groove between.
These ridges are placed a short distance inward
along the slopes from the keel, the distance be-
ing slightly greater for the upper one. Upper
carina removed a third of the width of the slope
from the upper suture, and very sharp or angu-
lar. Surface of whorl between the keels decid-
edly concave. There is a rounded ridge inter-
mediate between the sharp upper carina and
the suture. Umbilicus and aperture not seen.
Surface ornamentation obscure.

Locality —Passage Creek.

Remarks—This species may be compared
specifically with those Lophospiras which pos-
sess a threefold central carina. L. trilineata dif-
fers from these in possessing a small, rounded
but prominent ridge on the last whorl between

the upper carina and the suture. L. saffordi Ul-

rich apparently is more robust and much larger
with seven volutions. L. pulchella Ulrich and
Scofield also is larger. L. bicincta (Hall) pos-
esses a much greater apical angle, thus having
a shorter and fatter appearance.

Lophospira tropidophora (Meek)
Figs. 6, 7, 11

There is a notable lack of agreement between
the description and illustrations of this form by
Cumings (1907, p. 969) quoting from Meek
(1872, p. 278), and those by Ulrich and Sco-
field, also following Meek (not Miller, see errata
p. 1081 of reference). The description given by
Ulrich and Scofield (1897, p. 978) follows:

‘Height generally from 25 to 35 mm.; great-
est width equalling from 75 to 80-100ths of the
height; apical angle 75° to 80°. Volutions five,
uniangular; base produced, rounded; umbilicus

Dec. 15, 1943 SECRIST & EVITT: GEOLOGY OF MASSANUTTEN MOUNTAIN, VA.

closed; columellar lip thick and slightly twisted
below. Surface markings curved strongly back-
ward to the peripheral band, coarse and rather
irregular on the base of the last whorl, much
less distinct on the nearly flat upper slope.
When perfect the lines of growth are somewhat
— lamellose.”’

Our specimens are in general agreement with
the foregoing description, but the upper slope
of their whorls is concave and the lower slope of
the last whorl is more erect.

We have found a number of well-preserved
casts of the interior of L. tropidophora and one
moderately well-preserved cast of the exterior
at Passage Creek. The descriptions follow:

Cast of exterior.—Shell large. Height 30 mm,

width 25 mm. Apical angle 70 to 75°. Volutions
5 to 6. Last whorl very ventricose, the upper
portion of the lower slope erect. Whorls uni-
angular, peripheral carina rounded, prominent
and marginal. Upper slope concave; sutural
edge distinct but not carinate; suture slightly
impressed. On the earlier whorls, the ratio of
upper slope to the lower is 2 or 8 to 1, giving a
general pagodalike appearance to the shell.
Growth lines on upper surface of the whorls are
indistinct; on the lower surface of the last whorl
they are very coarse, swinging slightly forward
from the keel and then curving downward.

Cast of interior. —Last whorl very ventricose.
The upper slope of the whorls comparatively
narrow for the size of the shell; the ratio of its
width to that of the lower slope for the last
whorl being about 1 to 5. The upper slopeis
quite concave on the last whorl, less so on the
earlier ones, and is crossed diagonally with
backward-curving grooves. These are strongest
in the midbreadth of the slope, disappearing
toward the suture and the keel. The features
of the upper slope show considerable variation.
The main carina or keel is rounded with a slight
edge on the upper surface and is situated a lit-
tle inside of the greatest diameter of the whorl.
The upper portion of the lower slope is compar-
atively erect and is the greatest diameter of the
shell; the lower portion curves convexly in-
ward. The earlier whorls are rounded and
slightly compressed in appearance. There is no
indication of a lower carina. The sutures are
located at such a point that the ratio of the up-
per slope to the lower on the earlier whorls is
about 1 to 1 or 1 to 1.5. Sutural edge slightly
thickened but not carinate. The growth lines on

367

the lower slope of the last whorl swing slightly
forward from the keel and then curve down-
ward. The lower portion of the inner lip is
thickened and reflexed.

FOSSIL LIST FOR PASSAGE CREEK
AND GUB RUN

Cub
Run

Passage

Fossil rca

PLANTAE
Buthotrephis cf. B. flexuosa Hall...........
TESST yaar AYO VE) Foe eee yty ee See Ses) ER Perr Gres ieee eos TA

COELENTERATA—Graptozoa
Diplograptus cf. G. vespertinus Ruedemann.. +
o DES ajar ota Cun tacit cites atCaarak aries Rev anh leraaeae *

ANNELIDA
Cornulites cf. flexuosus (Hall)............. +

BRYOZOA—Trepostomata
LESH A NOY OCT) &) Oy SLING line Ho cierto a du a era Amee ce
HV AUGVOTE- SPeinGetas seen. etek *

BRACHIOPODA
Dalmanella meeki Miller.................-. *x
Dmultisecta NuCekiom fs cette ee 6 les oi
Lingula ef. nicklesi Bassler................
Orthorhynchula cf. O. linneyt (James)....... *
Pholidops cincinnatiensis Hall
Plectorilis sp) imd Cts. oi oes = ake =r he ae eee *
Rafinsequina alternata mediolineata, n. var... *X
Re alternata) (Mmmons) evar... 2... 20-4 1c
Owen byellaisSPs ieee oe ee eos ee ae
Zygospira modesta (Hall)................- *X

MOLLUSCA—Pelecypoda
Byssonychia bowmani, nN. Sp......++-+.+.0-:
IB PrOeCUnrs Gand Cis. <lsteheos cue\oneiots esa cee
BASTING CU. iene te tere cries = saeene to ete orbs sterols ote
Colpomya faba cf. var. pucilla Foerste......
Ctenodonta albertina Ulrich................
Cuneamya scapha brevior Foerste..........
CEUlmbOnN ata WMASDsc i ane ees oe orehais wie ste
Cymatonota cf. Bilis (Conrad) eens
(CRIT CE SING cee Go ioe acids Seto oto oi. can oie
Curried ontGiS Dyes cee eek oe one eee
Ischyrodonta unionoides (Meek)...........
TESS) yavaVG (tes oi ces Cee eee Ona ee Oren De
Nee nasutum (Conrad).............

SDie rie ss See EEN yale ee eae ee
Pterinea insueta (Emmons).............-.
Paterna an SPersria te abe | se ae tae
ICTS noo oon bee bros Os Bboy oon
Whitella massanuttenensis, N. SP....+....+..
WES NGSULG MSD acer meee meray

MOLLUSCA—Gastropoda
Liospira vitruvia (Billings)................
Lophospira breviangulata, nN. Sp....--..----
Dp, Gif DGTOROH 0G, Bl Ose ee Bio e OS Se BS Ee Foes Cc

x *

HEHEHE xX XSF
MM ot og a * te
ae Seah mete pa pd

¥%e XX

L. perangulata (Hall) var.......---...:-.-
lbp GLUGTUED Wi. BOs6 sie sec Ooo oOo eoor eo Se
L. tropidophora (Meek)...........-...-..-- *
Oxydiscusisp. indet... 2... ..22-0----+ 5-5. x

MOLLUSCA—Cephalopoda
Paractinoceras lamellosum GEalllyeer fe. ee ae
Spyroeceras Sp. indet:. ..2 65. 0.2 c eee ww

ARTHROPODA—Trilobita
Galamere SpewNGeh. ae ~ Se ein spi oe
Cryptolithus tesselatus Green......-...-.--
TIsotelus maximus Locke..........-- paaea Aaa
Te miegustosuockermii: 216 ees asta os cies
Odontoplewra Spices onl ee cee ks ae +

ARTHROPODA—Ostracoda
Drepanella richardsoni (Miller) var.........
Ceratopsis chambersi (Miller)............-.

Ree HE HK HH

% *

+ *

Ss gl eS2Ee Creek Zone.
+=

<— Pa sville but not in Passage Creek Zone.

3068

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 12

LITERATURE CITED

BassLpeR, R. 8. Maryland Geological Survey,
Cambrian and Ordovician volume: 424 pp.
illus. 1919. |

Butts, CHARLES. Geologic map of the Ap-
palachian Valley of Virginia with explana-
tory text: 56 pp. 1933.

———. Geology of the Appalachian Valley in
Virginia, pt. 1: 568 pp., illus. 1940.
——— and Epmunpson, R. 8. Geology of
Little North Mountain in northern Virginia.
Virginia Geol. Surv. Bull. 51-H: 163-179,

illus. 1939.

BOTAN Y.—A new plant of the genus Onoseris from Boliia.'

Cumines, E. R. The stratigraphy and paleon-
tology of the Cincinnats series in Indiana.
32d Ann. Rep. Indiana Dept. Geol. and
Nat. Res.: 605-1188, illus. 1907.

Meek, F. B. Descriptions of a few new species
and one new genus of Silurian fossils from
Ohio. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 3, 4: 274—
28S 2s ,

Uuricu, E. O., and Scormmtp, W. H. The
Lower Silurian Gastropoda of Minnesota.
Geological Survey of Minnesota 3(2): 813-
1081. 1897.

S. F. Buaxe, Bu-

reau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering.

The description of a new species of the
composite genus Onoseris from Bolivia is
published here in order to make the name
available for a revision of the genus in
course of preparation by Sr. Ramon Fe-
rreyra, of the Estacién Experimental de la
Molina, Ministerio de Agricultura, Lima,
Peru.

Onoseris fraterna Blake, sp. nov.

Herba valida trimetralis ubique compacte
albido-tomentosa, faciebus superioribus folio-
rum exceptis; caulis striatus supra angulatus
medullosus foliosus; folia maxima lyrato-pin-
natifida, segmento terminali hastato-deltoideo
cordato apice et in angulis acuto, lateralibus
paucis oblongo-ovatis multo minoribus, basali-
bus pluribus minimis; panicula multicapitata
pedalis et ultra ramis erectiusculis, pedicellis
1.5-6 cm longis prope apicem inconspicue
subulato-bracteatis; capitula radiata ca. 42-
flora 2.3 cm alta rubra; involucri 1.8—2 em alti
valde gradati ca. 7-seriati appressi albido-to-
mentosi phyllaria exteriora minima subulata
bracteis apicis pedunculi omnino similia, cetera
anguste oblongo-lanceolata ad lineari-lanceo-
lata parum acuminata; corollae marginales 13
bilabiatae hermaphroditae antheris cassis,
corollae interiores 29 tubulosae breviter 5-den-
tatae hermaphroditae; achenia breviter sericeo-
pilosa; pappus stramineus.

“Herb 10 ft. high’’; stem subterete, 1 cm
thick, densely and compactly whitish-tomen-
tose, solid, pithy; leaves (including the narrowly
winged petiole) 57-64 cm long, submembrana-
ceous, above bright green, sparsely and incon-

1 Received September 6, 1943.

spicuously hispidulous with short conic hairs,
beneath densely whitish-tomentose, the termi-
nal segment 25-27 cm long, about 30 cm wide,
repand-dentate with callous-tipped teeth, the
lateral divisions about 2 pairs, 3-11 cm long,
2-5 em wide, acute, repand-dentate, the seg-
ments toward base of petiole 7—9 pairs, triangu-
lar to linear, acuminate, 1.5 cm long or less;
panicle about 50-headed, about 30 cm long and
24 em wide, the axis and branches strongly
angled, densely whitish-tomentose and pube-
rulent with short, purplish, many-celled, not
glandular hairs; subulate bracts toward tips of
pedicels rather few and inconspicuous, 2-3 mm
long, appressed; heads (moistened) campanu-
late-oblong, about 2.3 em high, 1 em thick;
phyllaries rather persistently tomentose, more
or less denudate on the often purplish margin
and the broad median vitta, the latter often
finely pilosulous with purplish hairs like those
of the pedicels, the middle and inner phyliaries
1.8-2 mm wide; receptacle fimbrillate; marginal
corollas crimson, 20 mm long, thinly pilose dor-
sally, the tubular part 10 mm long, the outer lip
spreading, elliptic, 3-denticulate, 10 mm long,
2.5 mm wide, 8—9-nerved, the inner lip entire,
narrowly linear, acuminate, revolute, 8 mm
long; disk corollas crimson, tubular, cylindric,
glabrous throughout, 17.5 mm long (tube 6.5
mm, throat isodiametric with tube, 9.5 mm,
teeth 5, triangular, acute, erect, 1.5 mm long);
achenes of ray and disk (scarcely mature) simi-
lar, subcylindric, 5-ribbed, densely pubescent
with erectish hairs, 6 mm long; pappus copious,
several-seriate, somewhat graduated, straw-
color, of slender hispidulous bristles, 1.5 em
long; anthers of marginal flowers 4, nonpollinif-
erous, 4 mm long, those of the disk flowers 5,

Dec. 15, 1943

polliniferous, 7 mm long (tails 2mm, sacs 3 mm,
appendages 2 mm; filaments glabrous).

Bottivia: San Bartolomé (near Calisaya), ba-
sin of Rio Bopi, Prov. 8. Yungas, Dept. La Paz,
alt. 750-900 meters, 1-22 July, 1939, B. A
Krukoff 10266 (type no. 154679-81, herb. U.S.
National Arboretum).

Near Onoseris silvatica Greenm., of Costa
Rica, and not distinguishable in foliage. In O.
stlvatica the pedicels are conspicuously seta-
ceous-bracted above, and the phyllaries are at-

ORNITHOLOGY.—Critical notes on the avian genus Lophortyx.!
FRIEDMANN, U.S. National Museum.

Tor Grocrapuic Forms or Dovucuas’s
QUAIL, LOPHORTYX DOUGLASII (VIGORS)

Examination of a good series of Douglas’s
quail, Lophortyx douglasii, reveals that
there are not two races as currently thought
but five.2It so happens that all the new forms
are fairly southern and are here separated
from what has hitherto passed as typical
douglasit, leaving the northern race bensoni
undisturbed. The new subspecies, for which
none of the names previously proposed in
this group seem to be applicable, are as fol-
lows:

Lophortyx douglasii teres, n. subsp.

Type.—U.8.N.M. (Biol. Surv. coll.) 155948,
adult 3, collected at Las Palmas, northwestern
Jalisco, March 31, 1897, by E. W. Nelson and
EK. A. Goidman.

-Characters——Similar to Lophortyx douglasti
douglasit but with shorter wing, 101-104 mm
(as opposed to 109-114) in males, 98-102 (as
opposed to 105.4-109) in females; with the
longest secondaries reaching the tips of the
primaries (in douglasit the primaries extend
15-20 mm beyond the secondaries) in the closed
wing; and with the general coloration darker,
the males with the reddish brown on the wings
chestnut instead of Sanford’s brown (as in

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
ae Smithsonian Institution. Received September
6, 1943.

2 T am indebted to the authorities of the Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History, the Museum of
Comparative Zoology, and the California Academy
of Sciences for the loan of important comparative
material, supplementing that available in the col-
lections of the U. S. National Museum and the
Fish and Wildlife Service.

FRIEDMANN: NOTES ON THE GENUS LOPHORTYX

369

tenuate with (especially in the outer ones)
subsetaceous tips. The geographically nearer
O. purpurea (L. f.) Blake of Colombia is less
closely related, the decidedly setaceous-tipped
phyllaries being quickly glabrate except for
abundant short many-celled usually purplish
hairs. The three species constitute a compact
group in this multiform genus characterized by
their lyrate-pinnatifid leaves and numerous
many-flowered, radiate heads.

HERBERT

douglasit), the lower back and rump more
brownish; the gray of the breast darker—neu-
tral gray (pale neutral gray in douglasit) and
the white spots on the abdomen with blackish
ringlike edges; the females with the brownon
the underparts noticeably darker—dark olive-
brown.

Measurements.—Five males, including the
type: wing 101-104 (102.6); tail 66-72 (68.6);
culmen from base 14—-14.5 (14.1); tarsus 25-29
(27.8); middle toe without claw 27-29 (28 mm).
Three females: wing 98-102 (99.7); tail 65-67
(66.1); culmen from base 13.8-14.3 (14); tarsus
27.5-29 (28.3); middle toe without claw 26-27
(26.3 mm).

Distribution—Northwestern Jalisco (Las
Palmas; Las Pefias), possibly to Colima. No
specimens, however, appear to have been taken
yet in Colima. This State is included in current
accounts of the range of the species on the sole
basis of Grayson’s statement, that he ‘‘also
found it in the State of Jalisco and Colima, but
not as far south as Tehuantepec.” (In Law-
rence’s paper, Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.
2: 306. 1874.)

Lophortyx douglasii impedita, n. subsp.

Type.—U.S.N.M. (Biol. Surv. coll.) 157369,
adult <, collected at San Blas, Tepic, Nayarit
June 9, 1897, by E. W. Nelson and E. A. Gold-
man.

Characters.—Intermediate between typical
douglasti and teres, combining the dark colora-
tion of the latter with the wing tip of the former;
in size it is entirely intermediate. In other
words, impedita is a dark Douglas’s quail with
a noticeable wing tip; this combination of char-
acters sets it off from either of its neighbors. As

3/0

a matter of fact, it is even somewhat darker
generally than teres.

Measurements.—Five males, including the
type: wing 105.4-110 (107.9); tail 70-77 (74.2) ;
culmen from base 14-15 (14.5); tarsus 29.5—
34.7 (32.3); middle toe without claw 27-30
(28.8 mm). One female: wing 100.5; tail 68;
culmen from base 13.5; tarsus 33; middle toe
without claw 28 mm.

Distribution —Known only from Nayarit.

Lophortyx douglasii languens, n. subsp.

Type.—Mus. Comp. Zool. 24975, ad. , col-
lected at Trompa, Chihuahua, January 25,
1885, by R. R. McLeod.

Characters.—Similar to L. d. douglas but
with the gray of breast less pure gray, lightly
washed with brownish, and with indistinct
rufescent medioterminal spots on most of the
feathers; and with the pale spots on the ab-
domen slightly buffier, and the pale postero-
median part of the abdomen slightly more ex-
tensive.

Measurement.—Two males: wing 110-111;
tail 77.5-79; culmen from the base 15.5—-15.8;
tarsus 29-30; middle toe without claw 28.5—
29.5 mm.

The separation of teres, impedita, and
languens restricts the distributional range
of typical douglasiz to Sinaloa and north-
western Durango (Casa Blanca). The State
of Sonora is inhabited by bensonz. It may be
recalled that van Rossem (Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool., 77 (7): 481-432. 1934) has de-
cided, contrary to some of his own earlier
conclusions, that bensoni of Sonora and
douglasii of Sinaloa were not separable and
has suggested moving the type locality of
douglasii from Mazatlan to San Blas. Thus,
the resulting douglasit of his paper is the
bird here described as zmpedita, and his
bensont contains both the bensonz and the
douglasii of this paper. It seems to me that
he had insufficient grounds for attempting a
reinterpretation of the type locality of
douglasii. What he writes is this: “Regard-
ing Vigors’ type of Ortyx douglasi, which is
in the British Museum; it is doubtful if it
ever came from Mazatlan. It is typical, one
might say super-typical, of the southern
race. The locality as given in the original
description was, of course, ‘Monterey,’ but

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 12

was later changed by Gambel to Mazatlan.
Of course it may have come from Mazatlan,
but all things considered, I believe San Blas,
Nayarit, to be a better selection. The type is
a female, a skin in poor condition and with
the tail missing.’”’ It would seem from this
that it would have been better had van
Rossem described the “southern race”’ as
new (equal to my impedita plus teres) and
merely sunk bensonz into the synonymy of
douglasiz. However, I can not agree with his
conclusion regarding the Sonora-Sinaloa
birds either. I find Sonora birds (other than
from the extreme southern part of that
State) to be distinguishable from Sinaloa
examples, and I therefore recognize five
races in all.

KEY TO THE RACES OF LOPHORTYX DOUGLASII

a. Breast feathers with a scalloped pattern like
those of abdomen (females).

b. Crest usually uniform dark sepia to fuscous

Se AR Gace Baek Sp Aik eee aoa bensoni, @

bb. Crest usually spotted or incompletely

barred with tawny.
c. Brown of underparts darker—dark olive-
brown.

d. With a wing tip (i.e., primaries exceed-

ing secondaries) of 15-20 mm.......

WioREE Dis GLC Ay eae Ce ee impedita, 2

dd. With little or no wing tip... .teres, 9

cc. Brown of underparts paler—olive-brown

to pale olive-brown....... douglasii, @

aa. Breast feathers uniform gray, not scalloped
(males).

b. Breast very pale—smoke gray, with a faint

bloish: tinge 29 3 eee ae bensoni,

bb. Breast darker—light neutral gray or darker.
c. Breast feathers mostly with indistinct pale
rufescent terminal spots. ..languens, &
cc. Breast feathers mostly with no such spots.

d. With a wing tip of 15-20 mm.

e. General coloration averaging darker,
gray of breast and abdomen neutral
gray, white abdominal spots more
or less ringed with blackish......
Ee ee cb eh eee empedita, oc

ee. General coloration averaging paler,

gray of breast and abdomen light
neutral gray, white abdominal
spots with no blackish rings......
Ae ONT ibn eal douglasi, oi
cc. With little or no wing tip....... teres, ov

A New Racs or GAMBEL’sS QUAIL

Gambel’s quail reaches its eastern limits
in the very arid country of extreme western
Texas, in the region about El Paso east to
Jeff Davis County. A series of birds from

Desc. 15, 19438

this area are consistently different in color-
ation from a long series of the typical race,
from southern California, Arizona, Utah
New Mexico, and extreme northwestern
Mexico, and appear to be a recognizable
race, which may be known as—

Lophortyx gambelii ignoscens, n. subsp.

Type.—U.S.N.M. 9363, adult, unsexed (but
male by plumage), collected at San Elezario,
Texas, December 1855, by Dr. C. B. Kennerly.

Characters.—Similar to Lophortyx gambelii
gambelii but with the long feathers of the sides
and upper flanks lighter in color—between
Sanford’s brown and chestnut (while in the
nominate race these feathers are between chest-
nut and bay in color) and somewhat paler gen-
erally, especially so on the crown, breast, and
back.

As in the other races of this species the
amount of buffy color on the abdomen can be
appreciated only in birds with fairly fresh
plumage, as the color seems to bleach out to
whitish, even in such a saturated buffy race as
fulvipectus. The type of tgnoscens is a bird in
fairly fresh plumage; the rest of my specimens
of this form are in bleached worn plumage, but
the color of the elongated chestnut feathers is
quite the same in all. There is no size difference
between zgnoscens and gambelit.

Range.—The extremely dry desert region,
sometimes called the ‘‘eastern succulent des-

ZOOLOGY .—A new snake of the genus Tropidodipsas from Mezico.}

SmitH, University of Rochester.
MANN.)

Among the snakes secured by Thomas
MacDougall during the winter of 1941-42
on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec is one be-
longing to the section of Tropidodipsas char-
acterized by the very short head, small pos-
terior chinshields, and small eye. It does not
agree with either subspecies of sartorzz now
_ recognized, the only other members of this
section of the genus known from Mexico. I
am indebted to Dr. E. H. Taylor for permis-
sion to describe it.

Tropidodipsas macdougalli, n. sp.

Type.—k. H. Taylor—H. M. Smith collection
No. 28088, from Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, colert,’”’

1 Received September 15, 1943.

SMITH: A NEW SNAKE FROM MEXICO

3vl

from Fort Fillmore, N. Mex., east to extreme
western Texas—El Paso, Belen, San Elezario,
and Fort Hancock—east to Presidio del Norte
and to the Limpia River, Jeff Davis County.It
does not extend farther eastward into Brewster
County, and apparently does not go southward
into adjacent areas of Mexico, but is limited to
the area of low rainfall (under 10 inches a year).
Thus, a male from Cajon Bonito Creek, Chi-
huahua, is gambeliz. Similarly, in New Mexico
its range is restricted to this very arid little
belt. Specimens typical of gambelii in every way
have been examined from the following locali-
ties in fairly nearby parts of southern New
Mexico: Fort Bayard, Frisco, Garfield, Gila
National Forest, Grafton, Joseph, Silver City,
and near Tyrone. These indicate that the coun-
try to the north of this ‘eastern succulent
desert’’ is inhabited by gambelit. A bird from the
San Luis Mountain, just within the more arid
region, is paler, and agrees with ignoscens.

The characters of ignoscens appear to be
more pronounced in males than in females, al-
though it must be admitted I have but three
females of the new form for study. Two females
from Cajon Bonito Creek, northern Chihuahua,.
are very similar to them, but the male from
that locality is definitely gambelii. It may be
that the two forms intergrade in the area
around Cajon Bonito Creek.

Of the new race ignoscens I have seen eight
males and three females.

Hopart M.
(Communicated by HERBERT FRIED-

lected by Thomas MacDougall during Janu-
ary, 1942.

Diagnosis —Related to T. sartorit. Dorsal
scales in 17 rows, absolutely smooth through-
out length of body; black bands 27 on body, 9
on tail, generally a little more than twice
length of light interspaces; ventrals 199; cau-
dals 65, in a female; eye diameter about equal to
its distance from labial border; head relatively
short; posterior chinshields very small.

Description.—Head somewhat mutilated. In-
ternasals a little less than half area of prefron-
tals, their common suture about two-thirds
length of common median suture of prefrontals;
length of sutures between rostral and interna-
sals about equal to length of sutures between

312

an internasal and a prefrontal, and about equal
to a common nasorostral suture; frontal rela-
tively short, about as long as broad, sides
smoothly convergent posteriorly and outlining
a shield-shaped scale; parietals short, but little
longer (6 mm) than broad (5 mm); maximum
length of parietals about equal to distance from
posterior tip of frontal to internasal-prefrontal
suture. Nasal large, divided; loreal square on
one side, rectangular on other; latter entering
orbit between preoculars; two preoculars, sub-
equal on one side, lower much the smaller on
other side; two postoculars, relatively large;
temporals 1—2, anterior in contact with both
postoculars; supralabials 6-7, third and fourth
(fourth and fifth) entering orbit; diameter of
orbit equal to distance of eye from labial bor-
der; posterior labial about as broad as long,
other labials higher than long.

Infralabials 8-9, first in contact on median
line; mental small; anterior chinshields about
twice as long as broad, in contact with 5—6 in-
fralabials; posterior chinshields indistinguish-
able.

Dorsal scales in 17-17-17 rows, all perfectly
smooth, even posteriorly, pitless; ventrals 199;
anal entire; subcaudals 65, divided; female. To-
tal length 697 mm, tail 132 mm.

Body pattern of complete black rings sepa-
rated from each other by light areas now (late
1942) somewhat pinkish in color (not improb-
ably discolored, as all bands, even at nape, are
of the same shade); black rings on body 27, on
tail 9, all very slightly narrower laterally than
medially; medially the bands are usually a little
more than twice as wide as the light inter-
spaces, which generally cover about two scale
lengths; on the belly the light interspaces aver-
age about as long as the dark rings.

The head is black above, except for a light
spot on the posterior angle of the frontal; the
color covers the parietals, but laterally extends
over only the anterior temporal, anterior half
of the penultimate supralabial, and all other
scales anterior to these. The mental, anterior
three or four infralabials on each side and a
spot on each anterior chinshield are black.

Remarks.—The single specimen of this form
known shows a relationship to sartorii, which
like it has distinct black rings, 17 scale rows, a
very short head, posterior chinshields absent or
indistinct, and an essentially similar head
scutellation. With occidentalis and philippii,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 33, No. 12

with 15 scale rows, there is obviously no close
relationship. All other species known from or
probably occurring in Mexico (guerreroensis,
fasciata, fischeri) belong to another section of
the genus, characterized by long heads, large
eyes, and relatively large chinshields; moreover
the patterns of these three species do not cor-
respond with those of macdougallt.

From sartori this specimen differs in number
of black rings on body (27 as opposed to 13 to
24) and tail (9 as opposed to 4 to 8), number of
ventrals (199 compared with 173 to 185), and
number of subcaudals (65 in a female as com-
pared with 54 to 63 in the same sex). The keels,
which are fairly distinctly evident in sartorit,
are indistinguishable in this.

Intergradation with sartorii sartorii is not

improbable; in support of this is a specimen
(U.S.N.M. 109908) from Tenosique, Tabasco,
with 24-8 black rings; the ventrals ( @) are 180
the subcaudals 66. All other s. sartorit examined
(8, from Alvarez and Tamazunchale, San Luis
Potosi; Potrero Viejo, Veracruz; Emiliana Za-
pata, Tabasco; and Chuntuqui, Guatemala)
have 22-7 black rings or fewer. Regardless of
the possibility of intergradation of macdougallt
and s. sartorit, the former is definitely not inter-
mediate in character between the latter and
s. annulatus, since neither has as many ventrals
or dark rings as the new form, although geo-
graphically it appears more or less intermedi-
ate.

The exact provenance of the specimen is un-
certain. It possibly was taken in one of the
mountain ranges west or northwest of Tehuan-
tepec, perhaps as far away as 20 miles (straight
line). It seems unlikely that the species occurs
in the close vicinity of the city of Tehuantepec,
since the intensive collecting of recent years has
not disclosed its presence there. Nevertheless
the latter possibility remains, for the energetic
collecting methods of Dr. Joseph R. Slevin has
unearthed in the vicinity of Tehuantepec a
specimen of another species of Tropidodipsas,

also unrepresented in the voluminous recent

collections from that area.

Tropidodipsas guerreroensis Taylor

Of considerable interest is a specimen, col-
lected by J. R. Slevin at Mixtequilla, Oaxaca,
on August 25, 1925 (Calif. Acad. Sci. 73653).
The only other known in United States mu-
seums is the type, from Buena Vista, Guerrero.

sf.

at he Oa ee ee

lil al ae ahi taal

ee ee

Dec. 15, 1943

It is much like the type as described by Taylor
(Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 26: 470-473, fig. 7, pl.
50, 1939 [1940]). The body is somewhat com-
pressed, the keels on the dorsal scales are
rather weli defined, the head is relatively elon-
gate, the eyes are large, and the posterior chin-
shields are nearly half the length of the ante-
rior. Asin the type a pair of chinshield-likescales
precedes the first ventral, following the other
chinshields. The loreal is elongate, separated
from eye by the preoculars, which are 2-3 in
number; temporals 1—2—2, 1-2-3; supralabials

8-8, infralabials 9-9; the prefrontals are a little .

larger, about 23 times as long as internasals.
The dorsals are in 17 rows. The ventrals are
184, subcaudals 78. Since the specimen is a
male, there are rather prominent knobbed keels
above the anus, and numerous small, well-de-
fined tubercles on the chin, throat and extreme
anterior part of belly. Total length 603 mm,
tail 153 mm. |

The markings are much as in the type. The
light gular area is not stippled, although the
dorsal nuchal band (complete instead of inter-
rupted medially) is finely mottled as in the
type. The light bands are narrower posteriorly,
most split medially with the halves alternating;
they are not broken up into spots as in the
type. Most of the dark rings reach the mid-
venter, but only the anterior five are complete
since the remainder is staggered; the light
bands become wider on the lateral scale rows
and on the belly.

The differences from the type exhibited by

REID: FISHES RELATED TO OPHIOBLENNIUS

373

this specimen are so few that they seem cer-
tainly conspecific. The somewhat greater regu-
larity of the dorsal pattern, as well as the lower
ventral count, in the Oaxaca specimen suggests
more strongly than before a close relationship
of fasciata and guerreroensts. This curious situa-
tion, in which a Yucatan form finds its closest
relative on the Pacific coast of Mexico north of
the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, has a parallel in
other snake genera, as for instance Lampropel-
tis and Stenorhina. It is not impossible in this

‘ case, as in the others, that the forms involved

actually intergrade somewhere on the Isthmus.
A number of references to’ Tropidodipsas
fasciata (Sumichrast, Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat.,
46: 246-247, 249. 1873; and Mocquard, Miss.
Sci. Mex., livr. 16: 872-873, pl. 70, fig. 3, 1908)
and Leptognathus fasciatus (Sumichrast, Bull.
Soc. Zool. France 5: 184. 1880; and La Na-
turaleza 6: 44. 1882) from the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec (Santa Efigenia, Cacoprieto)
probably are referable to 7. guerreroensis. The
counts given by Mocquard (184 to 186 ven-
trals) for three specimens from “‘Mexico”’ and
“TIsthumus of Tehuantepec”’ agree with those
of guerreroensis, and accordingly his illustra-
tions probably are of that species. The identity
of specimens recorded as Leptognathus fasciatus
from Jicaltepec, Cdérdoba and San Andrés
Tuxtla, Veracruz (Sumichrast, La Naturaleza
6: 44. 1882; and Ferrariperez, Proc. U.S. Nat.
Mus. 9: 183. 1886) remains in doubt, but may
well be correct. I can find no references in the
literature that might apply to T. macdougallt.

ICHTHYOLOGY .—Review of the genera of blennioid fishes related to Ophioblen-

Earu D. REID.

During the past few years I have at-
tempted to identify certain blennioid fishes
from the tropical Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans. Many of these specimens were not
identifiable with forms referred to the genus
Ophioblennius. As the material was assem-
bled and studied, it became more apparent
that a review of this group of genera was
needed. This report is a summary of my
findings, based on material in the collections
of the United States National Museum.

nius.!

* Published by permission of the Secretary of
Fea nscnian Institution. Received July 30,

(Communicated by LeEonarp P. ScHULTzZ.)

After carefully studying all the available
material related to Ophioblennius, the fol-
lowing key was prepared, giving the salient
characters that I have concluded are most
useful in recognizing the various genera:

la. Gill openings not restricted, forming a free
fold across isthmus.

2a. Strongly hooked canine teeth in front of
upper and lower jaws.

3a. Ventral fins composed of a concealed

spine and two rays; lateral line incom-

pleteries sxptiicad es Ophioblennius Gill

3b. Ventral fins composed of a concealed

spine and four rays; lateral line com-

plete or nearly so, a few pores lacking

posteriorly......... Leoblennius, n. g.

374

2b. Canine teeth absent in upper jaw, four

strongly hooked canines near symphysis

of mandible; lateral line very short

Sees Nec La ie ee eee Ae Blenniella, n. g.

1b. Gill openings restricted, the membrane at-

tached to and not forming a free fold across
isthmus.

4a. Four strongly hooked canine teeth in front

of both jaws; gill openings restricted,

membrane attached near base of lower

pectoral ray <3.) 205 23 Gloriella Schultz

4b. Canine teeth absent in upper jaw, a single

series of conical teeth directed forward

with a tendency to flare outward; gill,

openings wider but restricted, width of
isthmus about equal to diameter of pupil
RIB RUS a OAC eee eure Giffordella Fowler

Genus Ophioblennius Gill

Blennophis Valenciennes, in Webb and Barthe-
lot, Iles Canaries, Poiss., 1843, p. 60, name
preoccupied (B. webbiz Valenciennes).

Ophioblennius Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-
delphia 12: 103. 1860 (genotype: B. webbii
Valenciennes); substitute for Blennophis
Valenciennes, not Blennophis Swainson, a
genus of Clinidae.

The genus Ophioblennius is widely distrib-
uted in the tropical Atlantic along the west
coast of Africa and from the West Indies to
Trinidad. In the Pacific it occurs from the coast
of southern California to the Galdpagos, Chile
to the Marquesas, and the Hawaiian Islands.
No species, so far, has been found away from
the island or group of islands from which the
type was recorded. Most of the specimens as
yet collected have been attracted to an electric
light and captured in a dip net when this equip-
ment was used from the ship’s side while at
anchor.

I find the dermal filaments, number of rays
in the vertical and paired fins, and length of the
lateral line among the characters studied most
reliable for specific distinction. The recurved
canine teeth at the symphysis of the jaws and
the naked body together with the usually
forked caudal fin will serve as characters for
field recognition of Ophioblennius and related
genera.

Description——Body oblong, compressed,
scaleless; snout short, high, abruptly decurved
anteriorly. Lateral line incomplete, vertical fins
long, dorsal composed of spines and soft rays, a
notch at point of differentiation, anal similar to
soft dorsal with two spines, dorsal and anal fins
usually free from caudal, the latter lunate or
forked. Upper jaw with 2 or 4 strongly hooked

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 12

canine teeth on the premaxillaries followed by
a single series of minute conical teeth loosely
attached to the gums and easily movable, these
teeth grouped into units of several teeth each
and spaced at short intervals so that each group
appears as a single deeply incised tooth with 5
to 8 cusps. Lower jaw with 4 strongly hooked
canine teeth near symphysis of the mandible,
the outer pair more or less horizontal, their tips
strongly bent or hooked toward the rictus, usu-
ally 1 or 2 curved canines at about midlength
of the mandible, the posterior much the larger.
Gill openings wide, free from the isthmus, the
membrane forming a free united fold across lat-
ter in front of the insertion of the ventral fins.
Ventral fins composed of a hidden spine and 2
rays. A strongly marked genus, perhaps allied to
Blennius.

KEY TO THE SPECIES REFERRED TO OPHIOBLENNIUS

la. Four strongly hooked canine teeth in front of
upper and lower jaws.
2a. Pectoral fins short, not reaching origin of
anal fin.
3a. Dorsal XII, 19 or XII, 20; anal II, 20 or
II, 21.
4a. Nape with a pair of tentacles on each
side.of midline... 24: ¢egameees
hapa reat ferox Beebe and Tee Van
4b. Nape without tentacles on each side of
mide fuse Sos ee watsoni, n. sp.
3b. Dorsal XVI, 20; anal 26 (probably II, 24)
By egy phen Cease, trinitatis Ribeiro
2b. Pectoral fins long, reaching well past origin
of anal fin.
5a. Dorsal spines X to XII.
6a. Dorsal spines XII.
7a. Anal II, 22 or 28; dorsal XII, 22 or
XII, 23.
8a. Color brownish, a black ocellus on
preopercle behind eye, caudal

fin with longitudinal dark
StTIPES 5.25 seas ee
seer ea steindachnerz Jordan and

Evermann

8b. Color pallid, a dark area at occiput
and a dark vertical bar at base
of caudal fin. . . pinchott Fowler
7b. Anal II, 14 or 15.
9a. Dorsal soft rays 16; anal IT, 15.
10a. A pair of tentacles at the nape
on each side of midline, pec-
torals black, tipped with
coarse punctulations......
Ve tan, sea ee xziphiodon Clark
10b. A comb of tentacles at nape on
each side of midline, color
pallid. .fernandezensis Clark
9b. Dorsal soft rays 12 to 14; anal II,
14 or II, 15.

Dec. 15, 1943

lla. Dorsal XII, 13; fringe of tenta-
cles at nape _ gray-black;
notch in dorsal fin shallow,
less than half length of first
soft ray. ..vanderbilti Fowler
116. Dorsal XII, 13; fringe of ten-
tacles at nape pale; dorsal fin
with a definite space be-

tween spines and soft rays
Be Sas Set Aen Sate ei clarki, n. sp.

6b. Dorsal spines X.

12a. Dorsal soft rays 13; anal 14 (prob-
ably II, 14)... .phalacrus Clark

126. Dorsal soft rays 20; anal 20.....
See wee webbii Valenciennes
5b. Dorsal XIV, 20; anal 21 (probably II,
21); no tentacles at nape..........
- LE Ie RO Dee glam = eae laniert Seale
16. Two strongly hooked teeth on premaxillaries
and four similar canines at symphysis of
mandible; a fringe of 28 tentacles extending
across nape, fringes pale, dorsal notched
nearly to base of fin; dorsal XII, 13; anal
LTT Ene ie ae ie ae capillus, n. sp.

-Ophioblennius ferox Beebe and Tee Van

-Ophioblennius ferox Beebe and Tee Van, Zoo-
logica 10(1): 242-244, fig. 1928 (Haiti);
Longley, Carnegie Inst. Washington Year-
book 32: 2938-295. 1933 (name only).

‘U.S.N.M. 120028, 8 examples, 40 to 45.4
mm, Fort Landing, Saba Island, D. W.I.,
April 11, 1937; Smithsonian-Hartford Exped.
Coll., Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt. U.S.N.M. 120029,
2 specimens, 44 to 45 mm, St. Eustatius, off
Orangested, D. W.I., April 12, 1937, Smithson-
jian-Hartford Exped. Coll., Dr. Waldo L.
Schmitt.

Description.—The standard lengths in milli-
meters are 45; 44; 42.8; 45; 43.5; 45.4; 43.4;
41.4; 40; 42, respectively. The following meas-
urements are expressed in hundredths of the
standard lengths, respectively: Head 22.2;
24.1; 24.1; 23.4; 22.5; 21.8; 23.3; 23.0; 22.7;
23.5. Depth 20.5; 22.7; 21.0; 20.0; 20.5; 19.6;
20.7; 20.5; 19.0; 21.2. First dorsal spine 12.7;
iso; 12-6; 13:3; 12.6; 13.0; 12:7; 12.3; 13.0;
13.1. Depth caudal peduncle 7.8; 7.5; 7.5; 7.3;
7.4; 7.1; 8.1; 7.7; 8.0; 7.6. Length of snout 6.0;
6.6;-7.0; 5.6; 6.2; 5.7; 6.2; 6.5; 6.2; 6.0. Inter-
Grote! 9.155.055.6701; 5:15 4.8; 531; 5.35 5.5;
5.5. Diameter of eye 6.7; 6.8; 6.8; 6.7; 6.4; 6.4;
6.5; 6.8; 7.0; 6.9. Pre-anus? 46.7; 45.5; 46.5;
47.4; 43.6; 46.7; 46.1; 48.1; 46.8; 46.2. Pre-dor-
sal? 24.2; 23.6; 23.8; 23.3; 24.4; 22.9; 23.7; 24.7;

2 Distance from tip of snout to anus or tip of
snout to dorsal origin.

REID: FISHES RELATED TO OPHIOBLENNIUS

375

23.8; 25.2. Length pectoral fin 18.7; 20.0; 19.4;
19.6; 19.6; 19.6; 19.7; 19.6;.19.38; 20.0. Base of
anal fin 46.4; 48.2; 47.2; 47.6; 49.0; 48.4; 47.4;
46.9; 46.2; 49.3.

Da2gL, t9.0r:20 AS EL 20 or 246/P. 1S be
Br. 5. Body moderately elongate, compressed,
the profile convex before eyes, nearly straight
from orbits to origin of dorsal fin, which is
slightly behind the posterior margin of the pre-
opercle, spines and soft rays of about equal
height, the fin with a moderate notch at junc-
ture of spines and soft portion, tips of last rays
of vertical fins reaching nearly to caudal base,
the peduncle notably deeper than long, anal
similar to soft dorsal and preceded by two
small spines. Caudal fin moderately forked, the
lobes about even, its length about four-fifths
that of the pectoral, the tips of which reach
about opposite to, or fall a trifle short of, the
anus, upper rays of pectoral rather weak, the
first about equal to eye diameter, the following
rays evenly graduated to the tenth or eleventh,
which are longest, the lower rays are somewhat
thickened. Ventrals I, 2, inserted well in ad-
vance of pectoral base, their tips reaching about
opposite tip of lower pectoral ray or midway to
the anus. Upper jaw nonprotractile, upper lip
attached to snout anteriorly. Four strongly re-
curved canine teeth on the premaxillaries, fol-
lowed by a single series of minute conical teeth
set In groups of six or seven and loosely at-
tached to the gums and easily overlooked.
Mandible with four similar canines at the sym-
physis, the outer pair nearly horizontally de-
flected outward, their tips directed toward the
rictus, these followed by one or two pairs of
curved canines about midlength of the lower
jaw, the mandible sharply compressed to a
coulterlike edge and forming an angle just be-
hind the lateral canines. Lips thin, closely ad-
hering to the jaws, lower jaw slightly included,
the gape small, little oblique, maxillary reach-
ing anterior edge of pupil. Gills 4, a small pore
behind last, gill rakers 14, small acute points.
Pseudobranchiae developed. Nostrils well sepa-
rated, the anterior about midlength of snout
digitate with six graduated filaments, the long-
est reaching hind rim of posterior nostril, which
is situated just before vertical through anterior
rim of eye. Orbital tentacle simple, equals pupil
diameter, nape with a pair of filaments on each
side of midline about one-fourth length of orbi-
tal tentacle. Lateral line incomplete, arched

€

376

high over pectoral and ending below anterior
rays of soft dorsal.

Color in alcohol light straw generally, lips
and occiput with dark bluish shade, dark points
forming a shaded area across occiput in front of
dorsal and a sprinkle of brownish pigment in-
side gill cavity, at base of vertical fin rays and a
dark shade or dot at base of caudal rays, form-
ing a dark line that fails to reach the upper and
lower margins of the fin. Peritoneum silvery
but profusely dusted with dark pigment show-
ing through the ventral surface of the abdomi-
nal wall as a dark area from base of ventral fins
to anus.

Remarks.—This species differs from watsont
in having a pair of filaments on either side of
the midline at the nape.

Ophioblennius watsoni, n. sp.
Fig. 1
Blennophis webbit Steindachner (not of Valen-
ciennes), Sitzb. math.-nat. Classe Akad.
Wiss. 56(1): 354. 1867 (Barbados).

Holotype-—U.S.N.M. 89614, Anse 4 Galets,
La Gonave Island, Haiti, W. I., March 22,
1930, standard length 46 mm. Coll. Watson M.
Perrygo. Paratype: U.S.N.M. 120097, same
data as holotype. Standard length 44 mm.

Description.—The following measurements
are expressed in hundredths of the standard
length, respectively: Head 21.5; 22.7; depth
17.6; 20.9; first dorsal spine 12.8; 12.5; depth
caudal peduncle 6.5; 6.8; length of snout 5.0;
5.5; interorbital space 4.35; 5.0; pre-anus 43.5;
43.0; predorsal 22.8; 22.9; length of pectoral fin
20.9; 19.1; base of anal fin 48.5; 45.9.

Deon 9 or 20) Ac 21 SP al DA SNe. ulead
Br. 5. Body naked, oblong, compressed. Profile
convex, rather steep from upper lip to above
eye, then nearly straight with oblique elevation
to origin of dorsal fin, which is situated just
before upper angle of gill opening. Dorsal spines
slightly lower than soft rays, the fin with a shal-
low emargination at juncture of differentiation,
the posterior spine notably weaker than those
preceding, the posterior ray weak, terminating
about midlength of the caudal peduncle, which
is slightly longer than deep. Anal similar to soft
dorsal, the rays preceded by 2 spines. Caudal
fin forked, the lower lobe a trifle longer than the
upper, about equal to length of pectoral fin
which reaches to vertical of the anus, the rays
graduated from the upper which is very feeble
to tenth which is longest, lower rays somewhat

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 12

thickened. Ventrals inserted below posterior
margin of the preopercle, their tips reaching an-
terior third of pectoral. Upper jaw nonprotrac-
tile, the upper lip free laterally, gape small,
oblique, maxillary terminus below anterior
margin of the pupil. Four strongly retrocurved
canines on the premaxillaries, behind which is
a series of minute conical teeth in groups of 7
or 8 teeth each, these units appearing to the
unaided eye as single, deeply incised teeth with

_a short interval between each group, they are

loosely attached to the gum and movable.
Lower jaw with similar dentition, the outer
pair of canines near symphysis of mandible de-
flected and partly concealed by the lower lip,
a small canine about midlength of the mandible
and a large curved canine immediately follow-
ing. Gill rakers very small, 16 on the anterior
arch. Pseudobranchiae developed. Nostrils well
separated, the anterior with a digitate append-
age, posterior nostril above anterior rim of the
eye. Orbital filament very small, simple, its
length about one-third pupil diameter. Nape
without filaments. Lateral line incomplete ter-
minating below third dorsal ray.

Color in alcohol light straw generally, upper
lip with dark pigment, a dark shade trans-
versely at occiput, some faint dark spots at
base of dorsal fin supports and a dark vertical
line at base of the caudal rays, not extending to
the rudimentary elements, anal fin translucent.
Gill cavity with dark specks, peritoneum silvery
with dark pigment. Abdomen from insertion of
ventral fins to just before vent with silvery
sheen dusted with dark pigment.

Remarks.—This new species may be differ-
entiated from all others referred to the genus
Ophioblennius by means of the key on page 374. »
It is distinguished from ferox by the absence of
filaments at the nape.

Named watsont in honor of the colleeten:
Watson M. Perrygo, of the United States Na-
tional Museum.

Ophioblennius trinitatis Ribeiro
Ophioblennius trinitatts Ribeiro, Arch. Mus.
Nac. Rio de Janeiro 22: 177, fig. 1. 1919 ~
(Trinidad).

Description.—Head + in the standard length.
Dorsal XVI, 20; baal II, 24; ventral I, 2.
Depth. 4—-4.5; mouth small, reaching vertical
through anterior rim of the orbit. Four strongly
hooked canine teeth on the premaxillaries and
four similar canines at symphysis of the mandi-

Dec. 15, 1943 REID: FISHES RELATED TO OPHIOBLENNIUS 377

<<<} —— Se eee TN —
—— Xe
— — SS

=>
rr ==
= >S=Ss

SSS
>

oy a

Fig. 1—Ophioblennius watsonti, new species: Holotype (U.S.N.M. 89614), 46 mm. instandard length.
Fig. 2.—Ophioblennius capillus, new species: Holotype (U.S.N.M. 120032), 21.8 mm. in standard length.
Fig. 3.—Leoblennius schultai, new genus and species: Holotype (U.S.N.M. 118037), 25.4 mm. in stand-
ard length. Fig. 4.—Blennieila rhessodon, new genus and species: Holotype (U.S.N.M. 118029), 22.6
mm. in standard length. Drawn by Mrs. Aime M. Awl, U. S. National Museum.

378

ble, the inner pair recurved, the outer pair
larger and flaring outward at an angle, their
tips curved posteriorly; these are followed by a
pair of small curved teeth at midlength of the
gape and a larger pair of curved canines im-
mediately following. Upper lip delicately crenu-
lated, a series of minute conical teeth loosely
implanted on the gums and easily movable.
Anterior nostril with filaments, a filiform tenta-
cle above the eye. Interorbital space equal to
diameter of the orbit. Pectoral fin pointed, not
quite reaching origin of anal. Dorsal fin with a
sight marginal indentation at juncture of
spines and soft rays, the latter slightly more
elevated, vertical fins free from caudal, the lat-
ter forked. Ventral fins subjugular, their
length equal to postorbital length of the head.

Color (3 per cent formalin) flesh-colored,
eyes black, an indistinct stain behind the orbit;
a streak of the same color descends from the
neck across the optic region and spreads over
the isthmus; a series of 11 spots, moderately
dark, along the side to base of the caudal fin; a
series of similar spots along the back, alternat-
ing with those of the flank and encroaching
upon the base of the dorsal; other fins immacu-
late. Total length 52 mm.

Remarks.—I have not seen an example of the -

present species; the description is based on a
translation of the original description, together
with additional features shown by the figure.
Differs from steindachneri in the greater num-
ber of spines in the dorsal fin and in the greater
number of rays in the anal.

Ophioblennius steindachneri
Jordan and Evermann
Blennophis (Ophioblennius) webbit Steindach-
ner, Ich. Beitr. 8: 41. 1879 (5 specimens,
70 mm. long, from Navidad near Mazatlan
and the Tres Marias Islands).
Ophioblennius steindachnert Jordan and Ever-
mann, U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47(3): 2401.
1898 (Tres Marias Islands). (After Stein-
dachner.)

A single example in good condition, U.S.N.M.
No. 120030, standard length 59.4 mm., locality
doubtful,’ is preserved in the U. S. National
Museum.

Description.—The following measurements

3 This bottle contained a mixture of west coast
fishes and an old label: ‘‘Paraguay, Bahia. Dr.
EK. Palmer.”’ These specimens probably were ob-
tained in the Gulf of California during Dr. Palm-
er’s visit to the mouth of the Colorado River.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 12 —

are hundredths of the standard length: Head
23.2; depth 20.6; first dorsal spine 13.5; depth
caudal peduncle 6.9; snout 5.6; interorbital
3.7; eye 6.9; pre-anus 43; predorsal 20.5;
length of pectoral 24.4; base of anal fin 49.5.

D. XIE, 23-4. 11-23) Pe toon Ve, 2B rae
Body oblong, compressed, profile strongly con-
vex from upper lip to above eyes, then nearly
straight to origin of dorsal fin. Insertion of dor-
sal above margin of preopercle, the spinous and
soft portions of about equal height, divided by
a notch about half the depth of the fin, poste-
rior ray free from caudal, its tip reaching rudi-
mentary caudal rays. Caudal peduncle about
one-third deeper than long, anal similar to soft
dorsal and of equal length. Caudal fin moder-
ately forked, outer rays notably shorter than
the long pectoral, which reaches to opposite
third anal ray, upper ray of pectoral about
equal to diameter of the eye, ninth and tenth
rays longest, lower 6 rays much stronger and
somewhat thickened. Ventral fins inserted well
forward, their midlength below pectoral base.
Upper jaw nonprotractile, lip joined to tip of
snout by broad frenum, free laterally. Gape
moderate, little oblique, maxillary reaching
about opposite anterior edge of pupil. Upper
jaw with 4 strongly hooked canine teeth on the
premaxillaries, the outer pair largest and
strongly angulated. A series of minute loosely
attached conical teeth implanted on the gums
in groups of 7 or 8 teeth each and appearing as
5 or 6 deeply incised teeth on either side of the
jaw, this series is not interrupted by the ante- —
rior canines. Four similar canines at symphysis
of mandible, the outer pair deflected almost
horizontally, their tips directed toward the ric-_
tus and nearly concealed by the lower lip. These
followed by 2 curved canines at about mid-
length of the gape, the posterior one much the
longest. Gillrakers about 12 (count not certain).
Anterior nostril with 10 or 11 filaments, orbital
tentacle simple about equal pupil diameter, 5
or 6 small hairlike filaments on either side at
nape. Lateral line incomplete, convex ante-
riorly and running an eye diameter below dorsal
fin terminating below fifth dorsal ray.

Color in alcohol dark chocolate generally, a

dark ocellus on upper region of preopercle be-

hind eye, outer caudal rays somewhat lighter.
Remarks.—This specimen agrees very well

with the description of steindachnert and prob-

ably was taken on the west coast of Mexico by

Dec. 15, 1943

Dr. E. Palmer. It was found in a bottle with
five other blennies labeled ‘“‘Paraguay, Dr. E.
Palmer.”’ Although Dr. Palmer collected in
Paraguay and in the Gulf of California, the
present specimen obviously could not have
been taken in the southern locality.

This species is very close to pinchoti but has
an entirely different color pattern. Other differ-
ences are indicated in the key on page 374.

Ophioblennius pinchoti Fowler
Ophioblennius pinchott Fowler, Proc. U.S. Nat.
Mus. 80(6): 13-14, fig. 3. 19382 (Galapagos)

Holotype-—U.S.N.M. 91819, 1 specimen,
Black Beach Anchorage, Charles Island, Gal4-
pagos Islands, June 27, 1929, A. K. Fisher.

Paratypes.—U.S.N.M. 91820, same data, 16
cotypes. .

Other spectmens.—Four additional examples
collected as follows: Marchena Island Anchor-
age, Galapagos Islands, December 3, 1934, 3
specimens, W. L. Schmitt, U.S. N. M. 101930;
Tagus Cove, Albemarle Island, Galdpagos
Islands December 9, 1934, 1 specimen, W. L.
Schmitt.

Description.—Of 11 examples measured, the
standard length in mm. is 45; 45.1; 43.4; 42.3;
42.4; 40.8; 40; 39.6; 35.9; 39; 47. The following
measurements are expressed in hundredths of
the standard length, respectively: Head 25.1;
24.9; 25.8; 24.6; 24.8; 24.3; 24.5; 25.5; 26.7;
24.9; 26. Depth 22; 22.6; 22.6; 20.6; 20.3; 19.4;
19.3; 18.2; 15; 18.5; 21.3. First dorsal spine 13.8;
Pere toe Ao bd.0; 13.2; 13.3; 11.9% 14.5: 13.8;
10.6. Depth caudal peduncle 7.8; 8; 8.1; 8.3;
7.5; 7.6; 7.8; 7.6; 8.1; 7.2; 7.4. Length of snout
64-04, 6-0; 6-1; 6-8: 6.1; 5.8; 6.1; 5.6; 6.4; 7.4;
Interorbital width 5.8; 6; 6; 5.4; 5.2; 5.1; 6.5;

5.1; 5.6; 6.2; 5.38. Diameter of eye 7.1; 7.5; 7.8;

7.3; 7.5; 7.8; 8.5; 8.1; 8.1; 8.2; 7.9. Pre-anus 44;
42.6; 43.1; 40.7; 40.6; 41; 39.3; 41.7; 39.6; 40.6;
44.2. Predorsal 22.7; 23.3; 24.9; 24.1; 24.8;
24.3; 22.5; 24.2; 24.5; 25.1; 23.4. Length of
pectoral fin 238.1; 22; 23.5; 23.4; 22.4; 23.3; 26;
22.8; 22.8; 21.8; 25.1. Base of anal fin 48.2;
48.6; 48.6; 53.2: 52.4; 50.7; 53.5; 50.8; 54.3;
51.8; 47.4.

WANE 22 or 282A. 11, 22, or 23.-P. 15, 15 or
16, 16. Br. 5. Body oblong, compressed, profile
of snout from upper lip to posterior nostril
strongly convex then nearly straight to origin of
dorsal fin, which is slightly behind occiput,
spinous portion of dorsal fin a little lower than

REID: FISHES RELATED TO OPHIOBLENNIUS

379

soft rays, the juncture marked by a moderate
notch, tip of last ray about reaching midlength
of the caudal peduncle which is slightly deeper
than long, anal similar to soft dorsal and of
equal length, preceded by two spines, caudal
fin forked, about equal to length of pectoral
which reaches to opposite third anal ray. Upper
rays of pectoral fin much shorter and weaker
than lower rays which are long and somewhat
thickened, the fifth and sixth rays longest.
Ventral fins advanced, their insertion well in
front of pectoral base, their tips reaching mid-
length of the latter or slightly more than half
way to first anal spine. Upper jaw nonprotrac-
tile the upper lip free laterally. Four strongly
hooked canine teeth at front of upper jaw, their
tips pointing backward, the outer pair a trifle
largest, vomer and palatines toothless. Lower
jaw with four similar canines, the outer pair
flaring outward nearly horizontally with their
tips strongly bent toward the rictus and partly
concealed by the lower lip, easily detected by
passing the finger forward along the edge of the
mandible, these are followed by a minute
curved canine tooth about midlength of the
gape immediately behind which is a long curved
canine tooth, largest of the group. Gills four, a
small pore behind last, rakers minute, 22 on
first arch, pseudobranchiae well developed.
Nostrils well separated, the anterior about mid-
length of snout supporting a digitate append-
age on the inner edge with 8 filaments, posterior
nostril just before perpendicular through an-
terior edge of eye, orbit with a simple tentacle
as long as diameter of pupil. Four to six small
filaments on either side of the nape about one-
fourth as large as the orbital tentacle, their at-
tachment alternately in a semi-double row.
Lateral line incomplete, terminating below fifth
dorsal ray.

Color in alcohol light straw generally, upper
lip with some dark pigment, occiput, lateral
line and a narrow strip on either side of dorsal
with light chestnut-brown pigment, this very
dense and forming a pronounced crescentic line
across the back at the occiput, a narrow dark
band at base of caudal fin excluding the middle,
and the outer 2 or 3 rays above and below, a
dark spot at base of the supports of the vertical
fins. Peritoneum silvery with a sprinkle of
chestnut colored pigment spots.

Remarks.—This species is close to stevndach-
ner but differs in color pattern.

380

Ophioblennius xiphiodon Clark
Ophioblennius xiphiodon Clark, Proc. California
Acad. Sci., ser. 4, 22(7): 488-484. 1938
(Peru).

A paratype of this species, U.S.N.M. 120026,
was taken at Callao, Peru, in February, 1935,
by the Templeton Crocker Expedition 1934-35.

Remarks.—Distinguished from pinchoti in
the fewer supports in the vertical fins and in
color pattern.

Ophioblennius fernandezensis Clark

Ophioblennius fernandezensts Clark, Proc. Cali-
fornia Acad. Sci., ser. 4, 22(7): 184. 19388
(Juan Fernandez Island).

A paratype of the present species, U.S.N.M.
120027, taken at San Juan Bautista (Cumber-
land) Bay, Juan Fernandez Island, January 31,
1935, by the Templeton Crocker Expedition
1934-35.

Remarks.—Very close to «iphiodon but dif-
fers strongly in the plain coloration and in the
tentacles at the nape.

Ophioblennius vanderbilti Fowler
Ophioblennius vanderbilitt Fowler, Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia Monogr. 2: 242-243, pl.
11, figs. 26, 27. 1988 (Oahu and Christmas
Islands).

I quote Fowler’s description: ‘““Depth 4 to
41: head 3¢ to 34, width 17 to 2. Snout 4 to 43
in head; eye 23, greatly exceeds snout or inter-
orbital; maxillary reaches ¢ to 3 in eye, length
3 in head; 4 canines in front of each jaw, each
greatly bent or arched, each outer lower one
flaring outward nearly to right angle; inter-
orbital 32 to 32 in head, broadly convex. Gill
opening forms free fold over isthmus.

“Body with smooth scaleless skin. Lateral
line incomplete, superior, only running back as
far as end of depressed pectoral. Fringed supra-
orbital flap nearly as long as pupil. Short nasal
flap. Fringe of short filaments in single row
transversely across occiput.

“DPD. XII, 13 or 14, third spine 22 to 22 in
head, third ray 14 to 2; A.14,4 fin height 23;
caudal 1, slightly emarginate; least depth of

caudal peduncle 24 to 22; pectoral 11/10 toli —

rays 13; ventral 14 to 12 in head.

“Color of body russet, little paler on chest,
breast and prepectoral, also on belly. Head drab
nearly ecru drab below. Iris gray to silvery

4 Probably this count is IT, 14.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 12

white. Supraorbital filament and row of nuchal
filaments gray black. Fins all light or pale
brown, dorsals and anals grayish terminally.”

Remarks.—This species is not represented in
the national collections. Distinguished from
captillus by the much shallower notch in the
dorsal fin and by the grayish-black coloration
of the dermal appendages.

Ophioblennius clarki, n. sp.
Ophioblennius sp. indet. Clark., Proc. California
Acad. Sci., ser. 4, 22(7): 185. 1988 (Mar-
quesas).

Description—The present study indicates
that Clark’s undetermined specimen is a valid
species. A single example was taken at Taiohae
Bay, Nukuhiva Island, Marquesas, October
6-15, 1934. I quote Clark’s description:

‘“‘Total length 32 mm.; body 26 mm.; head
(9 mm.) 2.88 in head; depth (8) 3.25; eye (3) in
head; snout (2) 4.5; maxillary (2.5) 3.6; inter-
orbital (2) 4.5; D. XI-13, the spines long and
slender, a short space between spinous and soft
dorsal; A. I, 15; V. 2, the rays long and slender;
P. 16, base broad; C. truncate; branchiostegals
about 4, gill membranes forming a fold across
the isthmus a little anterior to base of ventrals;
jaws about even. Two strong and markedly
curved canines at symphysis of upper jaw, fol-
lowed by two smaller ones; a pair of similar,
strongly curved canines at symphysis of lower
jaw; no secondary canine immediately behind
it, but there appears to be a small one back at
the posterior part of the jaw. About 27 muscu-
lar bands; no scales, but an arched lateral line
of about 27 pores over the pectoral and back-
ward. No color except the usual black area over
the occiput; a small silvery patch on belly. A
branched cirrus at nostril, a slender single one
above eye, and comb of filaments at nape.”

Remarks.—This species differs from capillus
in having a definite space between the spinous
and soft portions of the dorsal fin. No doubt
there are XII spines in the dorsal instead of XI
as given by Mr. Clark.

Named clarki in honor of the late H. Walton

Clark, curator of fishes, California Academy of

Sciences, San Francisco.

Ophioblennius phalacrus Clark

Ophioblennius phalacrus Clark, Proc. Cali-
fornia Acad. Nat. Sci., ser. 4, 22(7): 184—
185. 1988 (Nukuhiva).

5 Probably this count is II, 15 or II, 14.

ee es ese ee ee ae

Dec. 15, 1943

I quote Clark’s description: ‘‘Total length 32
mm.; body 26 mm.; head (9 mm.) 2.88 in body
depth the same; eye (8) 3 in head; snout (2)
4.5; maxillary (2.5) 3.6; gape hardly reaching
to eye; interorbital (2) 4.5; D. X, 13; A. 14;
V. 2; P. 19; no scales, but lateral line short,
arched over pectoral, the pectoral rather short,
but broad. Branchiostegals 5, gill-membranes
forming a shallow fold across the isthmus; cau-
dal truncate or slightly emarginate. Teeth as
usual in the genus, four stout, curved fangs
about symphysis of upper and lower jaws, a pal-
isade of small incisors in sides of jaws.

“Color: Posterior part of body cream color;
head coarsely punctate with black spots, the
largest of which are larger than pupil, the spots
extending backward along base of dorsal.’

Remarks.—Not represented in the national |

collections. Distinguished from all known rep-
resentatives of the genus in the absence of der-
mal appendages and in the separate dorsal fins.

Ophioblennius webbii (Valenciennes)

- Blennophis webbi Valenciennes, in Webb and
Bathelot, Iles Canaries, Poiss., pp. 60-61.
1839 (Fort Ventura, Canary Islands);
Ginther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 3: 259
1861 (Canary Islands).

Blennius webbii Poggi, [article in Guidebook of
Canary Islands], ‘‘Guia de Santa Cruz de
Teneriffe” [p. d. 35]. 1881 (Canary Islands)

Blennophis webbit Vinciguerra, Atti Soc. Ital.
Sci. Nat. 34: 321. 1892 (Canaries).

Ophioblennius webbii Fowler, Bull. Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist. 70(2): 1052-1058, fig. 434.
1936 (Tropical Atlantic) (Valenciennes) ;
Norman, Discovery Rept. 12: 56. 1936
(Ascension Island).

Blennophis webbianus Valenciennes, op. cit.
pl. 20, fig. 3 a—c.

Blennophis webbi Giinther, Rept. Voy. Chal-
lenger 1: 5. 1880 (Ascension Island).

Remarks.—I have seen no example of this
species, and its occurrence in the Western At-
lantic is doubtful. It differs from all known
American species im having fewer dorsal spines
and from all Western Atlantic forms in the
much longer pectoral fins.

Ophioblennius lanieri Seale
Ophioblennius laniert Seale, Allan Hancock
Pacific Expeditions 9(1): 40, pl. 4, fig. 4.
1940 (Galapagos).
Remarks.—The present form is not repre-
sented in the national collections. An error oc-
curs in the reported number of dorsal spines as

REID: FISHES RELATED TO OPHIOBLENNIUS

381

given in the original description, but plate 4,
figure 4 by Seale (1. c.) is correct in this respect.
Dr. W. M. Chapman, curator of fishes at the
Academy, has kindly reexamined the holotype
and reports 14 spines in the dorsal fin. The
present form is distinguished from pinchoti in
possessing a greater number of spines in the
dorsal fin and lacking filaments at the nape.

Ophioblennius capillus, n. sp.
Fig. 2

Holotype.-—U.S.N.M. 120032, Albatross Sta-
tion 3921, night anchorage off Honolulu, T. H.
Diamond Head Light, 8. 62°, E. 3.9’, May 6,
1902, surface, electric light. Standard length
21.8 mm.

Description —The following measurements
are expressed in hundredths of the standard
length. Head 29.4. Depth 21.6. First dorsal
spine 16.1. Depth caudal peduncle 10.6.
Length of snout 6.9. Width of interorbital 7.8.
Diameter of eye 10.6. Pre-anus 45.8. Pre-dorsal
30.7. Length of pectoral fin 25.7. Base of anal
fin 39.0.

Dich 13. Ae lh d4g Pst LoVe ky 2 Beno:
Body oblong, compressed, scaleless, profile
gently convex from upper lip to nape, a weak
depression at occiput and a slight keel in front
of dorsal fin. Insertion of dorsal above mid-
length of opercle, the spines a little higher than
soft rays, the fin divided at point of transition
by a deep notch, the last spine attached by
membrane to the lower sixth of the first soft
ray, posterior ray reaches rudimentary caudal
elements. Anal similar to soft dorsal, the fin ter-
minating pupil diameter short of lower caudal
elements. Caudal peduncle slightly longer than
deep, caudal fin lunate, equal length of head.
Pectoral fin long, reaching opposite base of sec-
ond anal ray, lower rays little thickened. Ven-
tral fins inserted through vertical of occiput,
reaching 2 distance to vent. Lips thin, free
laterally. Upper jaw nonprotractile, maxillary,
reaching to below anterior margin of pupil. Up-
per jaw with 2 strongly hooked canine teeth on
the premaxillaries, followed by 5 or 6 groups of
minute conical teeth concealed in the lips.
Lower jaw with 4 similar canines at symphysis
of mandible, the outer pair nearly horizontal
and strongly hooked toward the rictus, the
apex concealed in the lip, a very small pair of
canines about midlength of the mandible easily
overlooked and exposed only by depressing the

382

gum. Gill rakers obsolete. Anterior nostril with
a bifurcate appendage, orbital appendage tri-
furcate, the middle filament longest. Nape with
a transverse series of fringes crossing the mid-
line, 28 filaments in the series. Lateral line in-
complete arched above the pectoral terminat-
ing below anterior dorsal rays.

Color in alcohol light straw generally, a rus-
set shade across occiput, some dark pigment
along base of dorsal fin, abdomen from base of
ventrals to anus with a silvery sheen, dermal
appendages colorless.

Remarks.—Differs from Ophioblennius van-

derbiltt Fowler in having only two canines in
the upper jaw, more rays in the pectoral fins,
nasal and orbital appendages, and in the much
deeper notch in the dorsal fin. Other differences
will be found in the key on page 374.

Named capillus in reference to the hairlike
row of filaments across the nape.

Leoblennius, n. g.

Description.—Body scaleless, moderately
elongate, compressed, the back somewhat ele-
vated. Vertical fins moderate, composed of
spines and soft rays. Dorsal fin with a notch at
juncture of differentiation. Ventral fins jugular,
formula I, 4. Pectoral fins large, reaching past
anal spines. Branchiostegal rays 5. Gill open-
ings wide, free, forming a moderate fold across
the isthmus. Gill rakers in moderate number.
Teeth all conical, 4 strongly hooked canines on
the premaxillaries and 4 similar canines at
symphysis of mandible. Upper jaw nonprotrac-
tile, lips free laterally. Anterior nostrils orbits
and nape with dermal appendages, the latter
with a series of filaments crossing the midline.
Lateral line complete or nearly so, arched an-
teriorly over the pectoral fins, several pores
missing posteriorly.

A well-marked genus of tropical blennies
whose affinities seem to be close to Gloriella on
the one hand and Ophioblennius on the other,

but differing from the former in the character —

of the gill openings and from the latter in hav-
ing 4 rays in the ventral fins.
Genotype.—Leoblennius schultzt, n. sp.

Leoblennius schultzi, n. sp.
Fig. 3
Holotype —U.S.N.M. 118037, Albatross Sta-
tion 3921, night anchorage off Honolulu, T. H..,
Diamond Head Light, S. 62°, E. 3.9’, May 6,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, NO. 12

1902, surface, electric light. Standard length
25.4 mm.

Paratype —U.S.N.M. 120096, same data as
holotype. Standard length 26.0 mm.

Description.—The following measurements
are expressed in hundredths of the standard
length, respectively: Head 32.7; 31.9. Depth
32.7; 31.2. First dorsal spine 19.3; 18.5. Depth
caudal peduncle 11.4; 11.5. Length of snout
9.84; 9.2. Width of interorbital space 11.8;
10.8. Diameter of eye 11.4; 11.2. Pre-anus 50.4;
53.8. Pre-dorsal 28.7; 29.6. Length pectoral fin
27.5; 30.4. Base of anal fin 38.2; 38.1.

De XI A138? Av, fo nPt 168 ho. V eee
Body scaleless, oblong, compressed, rather
short and deep in comparison with other mem-
bers of the present group. Dorsal profile well
arched, convex from upper lip to above pos-
terior nostril then oblique to origin of dorsal fin
which is above preopercle margin. Dorsal spines
notably higher than soft rays, the fin divided
by a deep notch, last spine joined to first ray by
membrane at lower 3, last ray attached to caudal
peduncle by membrane just before base of up-
per rudimentary rays of caudal fin, peduncle
much deeper than long. Anal fin similar to soft
dorsal, last ray free of membrane posteriorly
and failing to reach lower caudal rays by pupil
diameter. Caudal fin emarginate, its length
about equal that of pectoral which reaches to
above base of fourth anal ray, its outline sym-
metrical, lower rays very little thickened. Ven-
trals inserted below second dorsal spine, their
tips reaching midlength of the pectoral fin. Up-
per jaw nonprotractile, lips free laterally,
mouth small gape to below anterior rim of or-
bit. Four strongly hooked canine teeth at tip of
upper jaw and four similar canines near sym-
physis of mandible, the outer pair deflected out-
ward, no lateral canines evident at midlength of
lower jaw. Gill rakers very minute, about 14 on
lower arch, pseudobranchiae developed. Nos-
trils well separated, the anterior with a small,
flat terminally fringed filament, orbital tentacle
compressed, flap-like, short and blunt, a fleshy

band across the nape almost connecting the ~

lateral lines, the margin of which supports 32
filaments or fringes, slightly decreasing in
length terminally. Lateral line conspicuously
arched above the pectoral fin, its posterior por-
tion indistinct with several pores missing along
axis of body. Muscular impressions distinct pos-
teriorly, about 18 from above vent to hypural.

Dec. 15, 1943

Color in alcohol yellowish generally, a dusky
band across occiput and a similar band across
nape just before the band of cirri and joining
the posterior rim of the eye, a small dusky area
on lateral line below fourth dorsal spine, one on
midline before dorsal fin, and a series of dusky
shades along the back extending up on the
membrane between first and second spines with
transparent membrane between third and
fourth spines, the color scheme alternating
throughout length of the fin, gradually fading
out on the soft rays. There are two dusky bands
across the pectoral fin and a small black spot
near the tip of each ray conspicuously marks
the outline of the fin, three russet shades on
opercle and a dash of the same color downward
from lower rim of the eye, orbital tentacle dark
at base, tip lighter, fringes on the nape plain
yellowish, no dark pigment on upper lip nor at
base of caudal fin.

Remarks.—This new species differs from all
related species as indicated in the key on page
374.

I take great pleasure in naming this interest-
ing species in honor of Dr. Leonard P. Schultz,
curator of fishes, United States National Mu-
seum.

Blenniella, n. g.

Description.—Body scaleless. Dorsal with 13
spines, a deep notch between spinous and soft
portions. Gill openings free from the isthmus.
Teeth all conical, arranged in groups of 6 to 8
each; teeth of the units graduated the anterior
tooth of each unit longest, the posterior one
shortest; each group appearing as a deeply in-
cised tooth with 6 to 8 minute cusps arranged
step-fashion, as viewed laterally; lower jaw
with similar teeth and in addition 4 strongly
retrocurved canines at symphysis of mandible.
This genus is intermediate between Ophioblen-
nius and Giffordella. It is distinguished from the
_ former by the absence of canines in the upper
jaw and from the latter by the unrestricted gill
openings.
Genotype.—Blenniella rhessodon, n. sp.

Blenniella rhessodon, n. sp.
Fig. 4
Holotype.—U.S.N.M. 118029, Albatross Sta-
tion 3921, night anchorage off Honolulu, T. H.
Diamond Head Light, S. 62°, E. 3.9’, May 6,
1902, surface, electric light. Standard length
22.6 mm.

REID: FISHES RELATED TO OPHIOBLENNIUS

383

Paratypes.—U.S.N.M.
lengths 21.4 to 22.7 mm.

Description.—Seven examples were meas-
ured and their standard lengths in mm. are as
follows: 22.6; 22.6; 22.7; 21.4; 22.0; 21.4; 21.9.
The following measurements are expressed in
hundredths of the standard length, respec-
tively: Head 21.2; 20.8; 21.1; 19.7; 21.4; 23.4;
22.4. Depth of body 16.8; 15.5; 15.0; 15.5; 15.8;
15.9; 15.5. Height first dorsal spine 9.74; 10.2;
10.6; 10.3; 9.56; 11.2; 9.6. Depth caudal pe-
duncle 7.5; 7.5; 7.9; 8.0; 6.8; 6.5; 8.2. Length of
snout 4.4; 4.4; 4.84; 4.7; 4.54; 5.14; 5.0. Inter-
orbital width 5.75; 6.2; 6.17; 6.6; 5.9; 5.6; 5.94.
Diameter of eye 8.4; 8.4; 7.93; 8.9; 8.2; 7.94;
8.68. Pre-anus 40.1; 41.6; 42.3; 48.2; 42.7; 43.4;
43.8. Pre-dorsal 22.1; 22.6; 22.0; 23.0; 21.8;
22.4; 22.4. Length pectoral fin 25.7; 27.0; 26.9;
29.1; 27.3; 27.6; 26.5. Base of anal fin 43.8;
44,7; 45.4; 46.4; 45.4; 46.2; 46.6.

De Xe 1 Oe ALLE 20. P23: tS or 13 -1As
V.I, 2. Br. 5. Body naked, oblong, compressed,
rather slender, back not elevated, profile of
snout gently convex before eyes, slightly oblique
to origin of dorsal then nearly straight to caudal
base. Origin of dorsal fin above midlength of
opercle. Spines little lower than soft rays, the
fin divided by a deep notch nearly to its base,
last ray attached to peduncle by membrane and
not quite reaching upper supplemental rays of
caudal fin. Anal similar to soft dorsal but not
extending quite so far back, the last ray free
from peduncle which is slightly longer than
deep. Caudal fin truncate or weakly emarginate
its length about equal to that of the head. Pec-
toral fin long, reaching to above third anal ray.
Ventral fins inserted below midlength of opercle
and in contact with the membranous fold across
the isthmus, their extremity reaching half the
distance from their base to the vent. Gape
small, lips free laterally, the maxillary reaching
nearly to opposite center of pupil. Teeth in the
upper jaw minute, conical disposed in groups of
6 to 8, the anterior tooth of each group notably
longer than the posterior tooth, the intervening
teeth graduated, the apexes of the teeth in each
unit forming an oblique edge. These groups
form a continuous series in the upper jaw,
about 6 units on either side. Lower jaw with
similar teeth and in addition 4 strongly hooked
canines near the symphysis of the mandible, the
outer pair horizontal, their apexes directed pos-
teriorly and somewhat concealed by the lower

120031. Standard

384

lip. Gill openings free, forming a fold across the
isthmus, gill rakers minute, 12 on anterior arch,
pseudobranchiae developed. Anterior nostril
with a simple filament, orbital filament simple,
nape without cirri. Lateral line high, terminat-
ing below posterior dorsal spines. Twenty-four
myomeric impressions between anus and hy-
pural.

Color in alcohol light straw generally, im-
maculate except upper surface of the head
where the postfrontal region is sprinkled with
minute black dots. The occipital region has
slightly larger black spots surrounded by circles
of chestnut brown, giving the impression of
small bull’s-eyes or targets.

Remarks.—This new species can be recog-
nized from other related genera of blennoid
fishes by the key on page 374.

Named rhessodon, ragged tooth, in reference
to its uneven dentition.

Genus Gloriella Schultz
Gloriella Schultz, Copeia 1941(1): 17-18. 1941.

Four strongly hooked canine teeth on the
premaxillaries and a single series of small coni-
cal teeth not interrupted by the canines. Four
similar canines near symphysis of the mandible.
Gill openings restricted laterally, not extending
below base of lower pectoral ray. Lateral line
incomplete. Nape with a fringe of cirrus ex-
tending across the midline; anterior nostril with
a fringe of tentacles. Caudal fin rounded, the
middle rays longest. Other characters those of
the genotype.

Genotype.—Cirripectes caninus Herre.

Gloriella canina (Herre)

Cirripectes caninus Herre, Philippine Journ.
Sci. 59(2): 284. 1936 (type locality:
Ternate Island, Moluccas); 70(4): 342.
1939. |

Genus Giffordella Fowler
Giffordella Fowler, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 80(6):
14, fig. 4. 1932 (Nukuhiva Island, Mar-

quesas Islands) (genotype: Guffordella
corneliae Fowler).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 33, No. 12

Giffordella corneliae Fowler
Giffordella corneltae Fowler, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 80(6): 1-16, fig. 4. 1982 (Marquesas).

Original description: ‘‘Depth 4 to 44; head
32 to 4; width 14 to 14; snout 3 to 34 in head;
eye 23 to 3 in head, greater than snout to sub-
equal with interorbital; maxillary reaches back
2 to 7 In eye length, 24 to 23 in head; teeth
rather large, simple, conic, curved, uniserial in
jaws and lower as 10 flaring outward each side;
interorbital 3 to 34 in head, well convex. Gill
openings large, extends forward about opposite
hind eye edge, isthmus width about half eye.
Body scaleless. No flaps or tentacles.* Lateral
line not evident, side medianly with axial longi-
tudinal impression. D. 14, 14, fin height about
2 of head and divided by deep median notch, a
little behind vertical of anal original; A. 14,
each membrane notched terminally, fin height
about one-half of head; caudal slightly less than
head, hind edge slightly emarginate; least
depth of caudal peduncle 2 to 22 in head; pec-
toral slightly longer than head, lower median
rays longest, reaches little beyond anal origin;
ventral nearly long as head, of 2 simple rays.

‘Largely transparent brownish or colorless.
Dark pigment spots on cranium. Iris silver gray
to white.

“Type.—U.S.N.M. 91821, collected near
light, Nukuhiva, Marquesas Islands, Septem-
ber 25, 1929. Also 11 paratypes, same data, 16
to 22 mm.

‘“‘Named for Mrs. Cornelia Bryce Pinchot,
first lady of Pennsylvania.”

-6 In connection with the present studies, the
holotype of Giffordella corneliae Fowler, U.S.N.M.
91821, was reexamined and the following char-
acters (not mentioned in the original description)
were observed: Anterior nostril with a small sim-
ple filament on the inner edge, a well-developed
simple orbital tentacle attached to the membrane
of the eye superiorly, and a single similar filament
at the occiput on either side of the midline. Four
small strongly hooked canines near symphysis of
the mandible, the outer pair more or less horizon-
tal. Lateral line distinct anteriorly with 5 or 6
pores. D. XII, 14; A. II, 14; P. 14.

INDEX TO VOLUME 33
An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Anthropological Society of Washington. 117.
Chemical Society of Washington. 116.

Geological Society of Washington. 347.
Washington Academy of Sciences. 31, 63, 94, 110.

AUTHOR INDEX

AnpREews, E. A., and Reinnarp, E. G. A
folliculinid associated with a hermit crab.
216.

BartscH, PAvt.
mollusks. 54.

Bates, P.H. Alfred N. Finn (obituary). 32.

Bitter, Francis. The scientific significance of
ferromagnetism. 235.

BiackMAN, M. W. New genera and species of
Neotropical bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scoly-
tidae). 34.

Buake, 8. F. A new plant of the genus Onoseris
from Bolivia. 368.

Ten new American Asteraceae. 265.

BomuarD, Miriam L. Cerozxylon ferrugineum
André, the Salento waxpalm. 1.

Distribution and character of Sabal
louisiana. 170.

BRODKORB, PIERCE.
los, Mexico. 33.

Brown, Rotanp W. A climbing fern from the
Upper Cretaceous of Wyoming. 141.

Jefferson’s contribution to paleontology.

Notes on Mexican urocoptid

Two new birds from More-

257.
Browne, C. A. Henry Granger Knight (obitu-
ary). 94.

Bruce, Wituis N. See Oscar EH. TAUvBER.
97.

CAMPBELL, R. 8S. Progress in utilization stand-
ards for western ranges. 161.

CHAPMAN, WILBERT McLrop. The osteology
and relationships of the bathypelagic fishes
of the genus Bathylagus Giinther with notes
on the systematic position of Leurcglossus
stilbius Gilbert and Therobromus callorhinus
Lucas. 147.

CHASE, AGNES.
ica. 316.

CuarKx, A. H. Thomas Jefferson and science.
193. .

CoNSTANCE, LINCOLN.

New grasses from South Amer-

William Albert Setchell

(obituary). 288.
Coorrer, G. A. Charles Schuchert (obituary).
302.

Croat, Lrton. Notes on American Euphor-
biaceae, with descriptions of eleven new
species. 11.

Curtis, Harvey L. A scientific recreation—
the extent and accuracy of our measurable
concepts. 321.

DeEarporFF, MerLE H. See Wituiam N. FEn-
TON. 289.

DRECHSLER, CHARLES. Antagonism and para-
sitism among some oomycetes associated
with root rot. 21.

Two new basidiomycetous fungi para-
sitic on nematodes. 183.

EMBREE, JOHN F. The relocation of persons of
Japanese ancestry in the United States:
Some causes and effects. 238.

Evirt, Wittiam R. See Marx H. SerEcrist.
358.

Fenton, WiLi1AM N., and DEARDORFF, MERLE
H. The last passenger pigeon hunts of the
Cornplanter Senecas. 289.

Fiscoer, R. P. *The vanadium deposits of

Colorado and Utah. 349.

FisHer, A. K. Henry Corbin Fuller (obituary).
64.

FRIEDMANN, HERBERT. A new honey-guide

from Cameroon. 249.

A new race of the sharp-tailed grouse.

189.

A new wood quail of the genus Den-

drortyx. 272.

Critical notes on the avian genus Lo-
phortyx. 369.

GotpMAN, HE. A. The systematic status of cer-
tain pocket gophers, with special reference to
Thomomys monticola. 146.

HARRINGTON, JOHN P. MHokan discovered in
South America. 334.

Pacific Coast Athapascan discovered to
be Chilcotin. 203.

HepepetH, Jozrn W. Ona species of pycnogonid
from the North Pacific. 223.

Pycnogonida of the Bartlett collections.

83.
Heryu, Paut R. The genealogical tree of modern
science. 327.

HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F. Notes on the affinity,
anatomy, and development of Elops saurus
Linnaeus. 90.

Horr, C. Cuayton. Two new ostracods of the
genus Hntocythere and records of previously
described species. 276.

Huuu, Frank M. New species of flies of the
genera Baccha and Rhinoprosopa (Syrphi-
dae). 214.

New species of syrphid flies in the

National Museum. 39.

Some undescribed species of flies of the
genus Baccha (Syrphidae). 72.

Jackson, R. Scott. See WENDELLH. Kru... 79.

385

386

Jauns, R. N. *Sheet structure in granites; its
origin and use as a measure of glacial erosion
in New England. 348.

JENKINS, ANNA E., and Vitcas, AnMés P. Stem
and foliage scab of sweet potato (Ipomoea
batatas). 244.

Joyce, CHARLES R. See Oscar EK. Tauser. 97.

Kirk, Epwin. A revision of the genus Ste-

ganccrinus. 259.
Identification of Actinecrinus chloris
Hall. 346.

KRULL, WENDELL H., and Jackson, R. Scorr.
Observations on the route of migration of
the common liver fluke, Fascicla hepatica,
in the definitive host. 79.

LEoNARD, E. C. Four new species of Acantha-
ceae from Guatemala. 70.

LittLe, Evpert L., Jr. Homonyms among trees
and fossil plants. 130.

New names in Quercus and Osmanthus.

Loomis, H. F. A new genus of Virginia millipeds
related to Scytonotus and a new species from
Florida. 318.

Lucker, JoHN T. A new trichostrongylid nema-
tode from the stomachs of American squir-
rels. 75.

A redescription of Typhlonema salo-
monis Kreis (Nematoda). 28.

MattuHes, F. E. *Glacial events of the historic
period. 347.
McVaucuH, ROGERS.

Coulter, 1824-1827. 65.

Mears, Extiot G. Boundaries of the Humboldt
Current. 125.

Meaegrs, Witu1AM F. Harry John MecNicholas
(obituary). 192.

Miss, Cecit. See Lbonarp P. ScHuttTz. 251.

Miser, H. D. Memorial to Miss Olive C. Post-
ley. 350.

NortHrRop, JOHN D. Herman Stabler (obitu-
ary). 118.

Nuttine, P. G. The physical chemistry of a
cooling planet. 121.

O’NeitL, J. J. Frank Dawson Adams (obitu-

ary). 119.

Parsons, A. L. Thomas Leonard Walker (obitu-
ary). 95.

PHetes, W. H. See ALEXANDER WETMORE.
142.

Pierce, W. G. *Heart Mountain and South

Fork thrusts, Wyoming. 347.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The travels of Thomas

VOL. 33, No. 12

Prick, Emmett W. North American mono-
genetic trematodes: VI. The family Diclido-
phoridae (Diclidophoroidea). 44.

Reip, Hart D. Review of the genera of blen-
nioid fishes related to Ophioblennius. 373.

REINHARD, E.G. See EH. A. ANDREWS. 216.

Ross, CLARENCE 8. Clays and soils in relation
to geologic processes. 225.

Santos, Jos# Vera. New grasses from the
Philippines and South India. 135.

Sartor, LAwRENcE W. Synoptic revision of the
testacetpennis group of the beetle genus
Phyllophaga. 106.

Scumitt, Waupo lL. Mary Jane Rathbun
(obituary). 351.

Scuuitz, LEonaRD P. Two marine fishes new to
the fauna of Alaska, with notes on another
species. 59.

Two new characinid fishes from South

America of the genus Guilbertolus Eigen-

mann. 2738.

and Miuss, Crom. Descriptions of a
new genus and a new species of Paradontinae,
characinid fishes from South America. 251.

Secrist, Marx H., and Evirr, Wix11am R.
The paleontology and stratigraphy of the
upper Martinsburg formation of Massanut-
ten Mountain, Virginia. 358.

SmituH, A.C. Kullipiella, a new Colombian genus
of Vacciniaceae. 242.

SmitH, Hopart M. A new snake of the genus
Tropidodipsas from Mexico. 371.

Another Mexican snake of the genus

Pliocercus. 344.

SNYDER, CaRL F. Richard Fay Jackson (obitu-
ary). 287.

TAUBER, ANNE Hacer. See Oscar H. TAUBER.
97.

TauBER. Oscar E.; Tausper, ANNE. HAGER;
Joyce, CuHarites R.; and Brucs, WILLIS
N. Toxicity of some dinitrophenols to the
American dog- tick, Dermacentor variabilis
(Say). 97.

VALENTINE, J. Manson. Insect taxonomy and
principles of speciation. 353.

Vircas, AnMés P. See ANNA E. JENKINS. 244.

WETMORE, ALEXANDER, and PuHeups, W. H.
Description of a third form of curassow of
the genus Pauzt. 142.

ZELIFF, C. Courson. A new species of Cyclo-
coelum, a trematode from the catbird. 255.

Dec. 15, 1943

INDEX

387

SUBJECT INDEX

Anthropology. The relocation of persons of
Japanese ancestry in the United States:

Some causes and effects. JoHn F. Em-
BREE. 238.

Astrophysics. The physical chemistry of a cool-
ing planet. P.G. Nuttine. 121.
Botany. A new plant of the genus Onoser7s from

Bolivia. §S.F.BLaxks. 368.
Antagonism and parasitism among some
oomycetes associated with root rot.

CHARLES DRECHSLER. 21.

Ceroxylon ferrugineum André, the Salento
waxpalm. Mrriam L. BomuHarp. 1.

Distribution and character of Sabal louisiana.
Miriam L. Bomuarp. 170.

Four new species of Acanthaceae from Gua-
temala. E.C.LEoNARD. 70.

Homonyms among names of trees and fossil
plants. Ewpert L. Lirrue, Jr. 125.

Killipiella, a new Colombian genus of Vac-
ciniaceae. A.C.SmirH. 242.

New grasses from South America.
CHASE. 316.

New grasses from the Philippines and South
India. Jos& VERA Santos. 135.

New names in Quercus and Osmanthus.
ELBERT L. Litre, Jr. 8.

Notes on American Euphorbiaceae, with de-
scriptions of eleven new species. LEON
@roiwaT. --11.

Stem and foliage scab of sweet potato
(Ipomoea batatas). ANNA BE. JENKINS and
Aumés P. Viiaas. 244.

Ten new American Asteraceae.
Buake. 265.

The travels of Thomas Coulter, 1824-1827.
RocEers McVaueau. 65.

Two new basidiomycetous fungi parasitic on
nematodes. CHARLES DRECHSLER. 183.

Ecology. Progress in utilization standards for

AGNES

or.

western ranges. R.S. CAMPBELL. 161.

Entomology. Insect taxonomy and principles of
speciation. J. MaNSON VALENTINE.
353.

New genera and species of Neotropical bark
beetles. M. W. BLackMaANn. 34..

New species of flies of the genera Baccha and
Rhinoprosopa (Syrphidae). F. M. Hutu.
214.

New species of syrphid flies in the National
Museum. Frank M. Hutu. 39.

Some undescribed species of flies of the genus
Baccha (Syrphidae). F.M.Huvuiu. 72.
Synoptic revision of the testaceipennis group

of the beetle genus Phyllophaga. Law-
RENCE W.Saytor. 106.

Ethnology. Hokan discovered in South America.
JoHN P. HARRINGTON. 334.

Pacific Coast Athapascan discovered to be
Chilcotin. JoHn P. HarrinetTon. 203.
The last passenger pigeon hunts of the Corn-
planter Senecas. WituiamM N. FENTON

and Msrie H. DEarRporFr. 289.

General science. A scientific recreation—the ex-
tent and accuracy of our measurable con-

cepts. Harvery L; Curtis. 321.
Thomas Jefferson and science. Austin H.
CuaRK. 198.
Geochemistry. Clays and soils in relation to

geologic processes. CLARENCE S. Ross.
225:
Geology. *Glacial events of the historic period.
F.E. Marttuss. 347.
“Heart Mountain and South Fork thrusts,
Wyoming. W.G. Pierce. 347.

“Sheet structure in granites; its origin and
use as a measure of glacial erosion in New
England. R.N.Jauns. 348.

‘The paleontology and stratigraphy of the
upper Martinsburg formation of Mas-
sanutten Mountain, Virginia. Marx H.
Secrist and WILLIAM R. Evitt. 358.

“The vanadium deposits of Colorado and
Utah. R.P.Fiscumr. 349.

History of science. The genealogical tree of
modern science. PAuL R. H&tyu. 327.

Ichthyology. Descriptions of a new genus and a
new species of Parodontinae, characinid
fishes from South America. LEONARD P.
ScHuutz and Crcit Mites. 251.

Notes on the affinity, anatomy, and develop-
ment of Elops saurus Linnaeus. SAMUEL
F. HILDEBRAND. 90.

Review of the genera of blennioid fishes re-
lated to Ophioblennius. Earn D. Retp.
ob2-

The osteology and relationships of the
bathypelagic fishes of the genus Bathylagus
Ginther with notes on the systematic posi-
tion of Leuroglossus stilbius Gilbert and
Therobromus callorhinus Lucas. WILBERT
McLrop CHAPMAN. 147.

Two marine fishes new to the fauna of
Alaska, with notes on another species.
LEoNARD P.ScHuutTz. 59.

Two new characinid fishes from South Ameri-
ca of the genus Gilbertolus Eigenmann.
LEONARD P. Scuuutz. 273.

Mammalogy. The systematic status of certain
pocket gophers, with special reference to
Thomomys monticola. E. A. GOLDMAN.
146.

Obituaries. ADAMS, FRANK DAWSON.
FInN, ALFRED N. 32.
FULLER, HENRY CoRBIN. 64.
HorrMan, WILLIAM ALBERT.
JACKSON, RICHARD Fay. 287.
KNIGHT, HENRY GRANGER. 94.
McNicuouas, Harry JoHN. 192.
PostLEy, OLIvE C. 350.
RatTHBuN, Mary JANE. 351.
ScHUCHERT, CHARLES. 352.
SETCHELL, WILLIAM ALBERT.
STABLER, HERMAN. 118.
WALKER, THOMAS LEONARD. 995.

119:

287.

288.

388 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Oceanography. Boundaries of the Humboldt
Current. Exviot G. Mrars. 125.
Ornithology. Anew honey-guide from Cameroon.

5 HERBERT FRIEDMANN. 249.

A new race of the sharp-tailed grouse.
HERBERT FRIEDMANN. 189.

A new wood quail of the genus Dendrortyz.
HERBERT FRIEDMANN. 272. .

Critical notes on the avian genus Lophortyz.
HERBERT FRIEDMANN. 369.

Description of a third form of curassow of the
genus Pauzit. ALEXANDER WETMORE and
W.H.PuHELps. 142.

Two new birds from Morelos, Mexico.
PIERCE BRODKORB. 33.

Paleobctany. A climbing fern from the Upper
Cretaceous of Wyoming. RoLanp W.
Brown. 141.

Paleontology. A revision of the genus Stegano-
crinus. EpWwINn Kirk. 259.

Identification of Actinocrinus chloris Hall.

Edwin Kirk 346.

Jefferson’s contribution to paleontology.
RouLanpD W. Brown. 2057.

Physics. The scientific significance of ferro-
magnetism. FRANcIS BITTER. 235
Toxicology. Toxicity of some dinitrophenols to
the American dog tick, Dermacentor vari-
abilts (Say). Oscar E. Tavuser, ANNE
Hacer TAUBER, CHARLES R. Joyce, and

Wiuuis N. Bruce. 97.

Zoclogy. A folliculinid associated with a hermit
crab. E. A. ANDREWS and E. G. REIN-
HARD. 216.

VOL. 33, NO. 12

A new genus of Virginia millipeds related to
Scytonotus and a new species from Florida.
H.¥F. Loomis. 318.

A new snake of the genus T'ropidodipsas from
Mexico. HospartM.SmiruH. 371.

A new species of Cyclocoelum, a trematode

from the catbird. C. Courson ZELIFF.
255.
A new trichostrongylid nematode from the

stomachs of American squirrels. JoHN T. ~

Lucker. 75.
Another Mexican snake of the genus Plio-
cercus. Hopart M. SmitH. 344.

A redescription of Typhlonema salemonis
Kreis (Nematoda). JoHn T. Lucker.
28.

North American monogenetic trematodes:
VI. The family Diclidophoridae (Diclido-
phoroidea). EmmMertt W. Prick. 44.

Notes on Mexican urocoptid mollusks.
Pau BartscH. 54.

Observations on the route of migration of the
common liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica,
in the definitive host. WENDELL H.
Kru. and R. Scott Jackson. 79.

On a species of pycnogonid from the North
Pacific. JoEL W. HEDGPETH. 223.

Pyecnogonida of the Bartlett collections. —

JoEL W. HEDGPETH. 83.

Two new ostracods of the genus Entecythere
and records of previously described species.
C. CLayton Horr. 276.

CONTENTS

ENTOMOLOGY.—Insect taxonomy and_ principles of speciation.
J. MAnson VALENTINE

GroLocy.—The paleontology and stratigraphy of the upper Martins-
burg formation of Massanutten Mountain, Virginia. Marx H.
SECRIST and Wiuu1AM R. Evitrt

CeO Oe ee 8 a elie fee Ue ee) eel ey on le yew) 60 Aaa ewe

9 Oye) 060 Wi 8) 0 Xe ee! ole, @) te: ete) le) 8 fertie lerpell el Ye. ere. te) @ ue he) 46 Ae) cee 16116) Bi eh 6 ee tab pete eer eee ee

ORNITHOLOGY.—Critical notes on the avian genus Lophortyx. Hzr-
BERT FRIEDMANN

@ 66) 0.) ee he e688 0. 0 ee) elie Ae tele jy @ 50 ue te 6) e108) 6 esse ®) Wee er ies ek) wen

ZooLocy.—A new snake of the genus T'ropidodipsas from Mexico.
Hosart M. Smita

Ca ies Sa Dent Jone Wa Ue eR OK We eer orks WO Nt Sat Sere Yolen YMC He Sa Bly Wag Yoet Meoat Mit See Jaan Yee eas Sons mec SR VAC ar Re oes NL

IcHTHYOLOGY.—Review of the genera of blennioid fishes related to
Ophioblennius. Earu D. Rurp...... eNO Gee Ce

INDEX TO: VOLUME 30. 2 eo ee

- ‘This Journal] Is Indexed in the International] Index to Periodicals

Page

353

358

Blile,

369

371

“y

a”

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES

i IPMS

3 9088 01303 1877

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